This paper presents some preliminary work undertaken by the author to better frame and focus the development of her doctoral study in the area of the experience of international students in Australian tertiary education. The first section of the paper focuses on the contextual framework, particularly the policy framework pertaining to international students in Australia as well as providing an analysis of DETYA statistics. The second section of the paper explores the issue of quality in Australian universities and the recent developments in terms of quality assurance measures. The question of whether these measures and policies put in place has a bearing on the quality of international students educational experience in Australian institutions is explored. One question at the centre of the discussion is what should and can be construed as the 'educational experience' for international students? The last section of the paper discusses briefly the state of research into the area of international students. This will lead to a discussion of factors affecting this study and to a posing of major research questions.

The past few decades have seen a metamorphosis in the way that providing education for overseas students has come to be perceived in Australia. The emphasis has moved from 'aid' and promoting international understanding, whereby selected students from developing countries were provided with opportunities to acquire skills and knowledge, to an emphasis on expanding access and packaging and marketing higher education outside Australia (Randell in Brown & Dale, 1989).

Overseas students from mainly Asian countries first began enrolling in Australian Universities in 1904. At this time there was limited capacity for postgraduate studies to be completed in Australia, with most students travelling to England, Europe or North America to pursue academic studies. Government policy allowed overseas students entry to Australia provided they were accepted into full-time University courses and could provide evidence they were able to support themselves financially and pay tuition fees. Australian universities increased in quality and capacity after World War II offering postgraduate degrees that rivaled those of other developed countries. Increasing academic standards induced many students from Asia to study in Australia - from Malaysia, Singapore, Hong Kong and Indonesia, where demand for places in the home country higher education exceeded supply (Williams, 1989).

In 1950, Australia joined with other Commonwealth countries in the 'Colombo Plan'. Under this plan, Australian Federal Government funds were provided to encourage students from developing countries to study in Australia. This was part of a broader plan to ease international tension after World War II, and to create ties with other countries that might lead to an increase in opportunities for Australia's trade. In 1956, Australian migration policy was for a 'White Australia', consequently entry conditions were applied to overseas students following problems with students staying on in Australia after completing their studies. To limit overseas students studying in Australia students were required to pursue a course of study that would lead to exams and maintain satisfactory academic progress in order to continue study in Australia (Williams, 1989).

In 1966, the Federal Government determined that foreign students would be allowed entry into Australia to study for two reasons: First, to educate and equip them to contribute to the economic development of their home country and second, to give foreign students an understanding of Australia and Australians. This view was to stand until 1973, when the Whitlam Federal Government abolished the 'White Australia' policy and the economic development criteria for studying in Australia. A limit of 10 000 was placed upon the number of private overseas students who could study in Australia and applications were only accepted from students with a proposed course of study not offered in their home country. This coincided with the decision to abolish tuition fees for all tertiary students studying in Australia, which effectively increased the subsidy for students from overseas.

An overseas student charge (OSC) was introduced in 1979 and the limit on overseas students in Australia was removed. The OSC was considerably less than full cost, and was progressively increased until 1988 when it was set at 55% of the average cost of a place at a higher education institution in Australia (Harris & Jarrett, 1990). Thus the private students were "subsidised" by the Australian Government and the education was still a component of Australia's aid program. The problem of students staying in Australia and not returning home had escalated as there had not been appropriate methods set in place to deter students from migrating through the 'back-door'. As a consequence all overseas students were required to return home for at least two years after graduation before becoming eligible to migrate to Australia. In 1981, the Federal Government agreed to pay the OSC from overseas aid funds for private students from Papau New Guinea and the South Pacific.

In 1983, the Minister for Immigration and Ethnic Affairs appointed the Goldring Committee to review private overseas student policy. In addition the Minister for Foreign Affairs appointed the Jackson Committee to review Australia's overseas aid program. The two committees presented very different recommendations in 1984 regarding the Government's foreign student policy. The Jackson Committee recommended that full-cost fees be introduced and that provision of scholarship funds from overseas aid be established to promote development and equity. Alternatively the Goldring Committee maintained that full-cost fees would discourage overseas students and that poor students would be disadvantaged and recommended that the OSC be set at 30%-40% with postgraduate students being exempt from the charge.

In 1985 the Jackson view prevailed and a new "Policy on Overseas Students" was launched. Tertiary institutions were encouraged to offer places for full-fee paying overseas students who would return home after their study. There was no limit on the number of full-fee paying students attending an institution provided the institutions entry requirements were met and the full cost of the course was paid. Institutions could only accept an international student if there was no displacement of an Australian student. Universities and colleges received grants of up to $200 000 to develop promotional material and marketing strategies to attract students to their institution. The federal minister for education encouraged universities to charge a profit margin on foreign student tuition to generate revenue. This approach marked the change in how overseas students were perceived by academic institutions - from an altruistic perspective of students in developing countries to the financial perspective of prospective customers contributing to the financial situation of the institution. The shift from a philosophy of educational aid to educational trade had commenced (Back, Davis & Olsen, 1996). Despite outrage from Australian academics, foreign students and their governments, most universities saw little option another than to engage in the pursuit of revenue through competitive marketing and student recruitment programs through Asia. The result was a spectacular growth in international enrolments (Smart & Ang, 1996).

In 1992 the Federal government signaled a major policy shift from "trade" to the genuine "internationalisation of education", partly because of widespread international criticism of its excessively commercial orientation (Smart & Ang, 1996). The transition from trade to internationalisation was not an easy one and involved a completely new look at the strategy of internationalisation.

According to Back, Davis and Olsen the pursuit of internationalisation strategies by Australian institutions has seen:

• "The disappearance of the term fee-paying overseas student and its replacement with international student
• The restructuring of the International Offices and their line of management
• A marked reduction in the use of marketing and commercial terms in the recruitment process
• The specific reference to the internationalisation process in mission statements and strategic plans
• The acceptance of important key issues such as the internationalisation of the curriculum
• Enhanced familiarity with overseas qualifications and awards and equivalence with Australian higher education awards, flexible entry points in an academic year, flexible cross-crediting through exchange and study abroad programs-all benefits that flow to Australian students, and

• The recognition of the non commercial benefits of internationalisation"

(Back, Davis & Olsen, 1996, p.12)

In 1996 the federal minister for education announced that she expected the education export income to increase from US$1.34 billion to US$3.56 billion by the year 2000 (Smart & Ang, 1996). It is not surprising in this economic climate that in recent years there has been an emergence of transnational education in the form of twinning programs, distance education, articulation programs and franchising arrangements (McBurnie & Pollack, 1998).

The internationalisation of higher education is "the process of integrating an international/intercultural dimension into the teaching, research and service of the institution" (Back, Davis & Olsen, 1996, p.vii). This involves institutions not only encouraging international students to study with them but also encouraging Australian students in their institution to study overseas. While the policy of internationalisation supports exchange programs, there is not a tradition of studying in other countries among Australian students and exchange arrangements are under-utilised (Baker, Creedy & Johnson, 1996).

Given these changes what is the current situation with respect to numbers of international students studying in Australia and how are they distributed between institutions?

The data used in this section of the paper is taken from the Department of Education, Training and Youth Affairs (DETYA) Selected Higher Education Statistics from 1998 and some preliminary statistics from 1999. Please note that as the documents use the term "overseas student" rather than "international student" that term is replicated in the analysis.

At 31 March 1998, there were 671 853 students enrolled in higher education courses and undertaking units of study in Semester 1 1998. Of these, non-overseas students accounted for the vast majority of the total number of students (89.3%), with overseas students accounting for 10.7 percent (DETYA, 1998). In Australian higher education institutions female students outnumber their male counterparts. Female students accounted for 54.7 percent of all students in 1998, and males 45.3 percent. In contrast, overseas students boast a higher percentage of male students (52.3%), with female students catching up with 47.7 percent. Although there are more males overseas students studying in Australia in 1998, it is indicated in the trend analysis (Figure 1) that there have been increasing numbers of female overseas students enrolling to study in Australia over the past four years.

Students studying at Australian tertiary institutions primarily come from Asian and Middle Eastern countries (Figure 2).

The top ten source countries in Australian institutions in 1998 are shown below (Table 1). All of the ten countries are in Asia, which illustrates the dominance of the Asian region as a source of students in Australia. The top ten source countries account for 81 percent of international students in Australia in 1998.

An emerging market in the international student area has been found in the American and Scandinavian countries, particularly for one semester exchange and study abroad programs. In 1998, there were 1 515 students studying in Australia from USA, 698 from Canada and 1003 from Scandinavia (DETYA, 1998). Unfortunately there are no national figures on overseas students coming to Australia specifically to complete exchange or study abroad programs. Commencing student and continuing student data however may give an indication of students studying in Australia for a short time.

The trend analysis (Figure 3) indicates that commencing overseas students outnumbers continuing students. In 1998, 52.3 percent was accounted for by commencing overseas students while continuing overseas students accounted for 47.7 percent. This percentage for overseas commencing students was 12% higher than for all commencing students (40.3%) at Australian higher education institutions. In 1999 there was a considerable increase in the number of commencing overseas students (up 20.5% on 1998). This may be a result of the greater numbers of one-semester and one-year exchange and study abroad students studying in Australia, or may reflect the increase in postgraduate coursework degrees.

The student load accounted for by all students in Australian tertiary institutions in 1998 was 528 735 Equivalent Full-time Student Units (EFTSU). Of the total student load 68 215 students were overseas students (12.9%) and 460 520 were non-overseas students (87.1%) (See Table 2). New South Wales has the highest total student load, followed by Victoria, then Queensland (See Figure 4). Victoria is the state with the highest overseas student load, followed by New South Wales, then Queensland (See Figure 5).

In terms of overseas student load in Victorian Institutions (See Figure 6), the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology has the greatest amount of overseas student load (6456), followed by Monash University with 6011, and then the University of Melbourne (3146). The Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology also has the largest percentage of overseas student load (28%). Curtin University of Technology in Western Australia shares this top position (See Table 2). In terms of overseas students in New South Wales Institutions (See Figure 7), the University of New South Wales has the greatest overseas student load (4742), followed by the University of Sydney (2524) and then the University of Western Sydney (2505). The University of New South Wales has the largest percentage of overseas student load in comparison to total student load of the institution in New South Wales (20%), followed by the University of Wollongong (19%). The University of Wollongong is one of the most successful regional universities in attracting overseas students.

The past ten years have seen some changes in the types of courses studied by overseas students at Australian higher education institutions. In 1989, 76 percent of overseas students came to Australia to pursue undergraduate courses, and 25 percent studied postgraduate courses (See Table 3). Of the postgraduate courses, 49 percent of students pursued research programs and 25 percent pursued coursework programs (See Figure 8). In 1999, 69 percent of overseas students study in undergraduate courses (decrease of 7%), and 28 percent study in postgraduate courses (an increase of 3%) (See Figure 8). In 1999 also, 67 percent of postgraduate programs were higher degree coursework compared to 18 percent research (See Figure 9). The most dramatic change over the ten-year period has been the increase in students studying postgraduate coursework programs (See Figure 10).

Some 50 percent of overseas students studying at Australian higher education institutions in 1998 chose to study in the discipline area of Business, Administration and Economics (See Figure 11). Other areas attracting students are Science (14%), Arts, Humanities & Social Sciences (10%), Engineering & Surveying (9%) and Health (9%) (See Table 4).

Given this paper is presented to an education audience, what proportion of overseas students study in the field of education? The answer is 2 percent of overseas students and most of them are from Asian and Middle Eastern countries (59%), with the main number of students originating from Hong Kong, Malaysia, Singapore and Japan respectively (See Figure 12). Some 12 percent come from the Americas - mainly from Canada, and another 12 percent from the Pacific and Indian Ocean Islands. In terms of gender, education attracts more female overseas students than male ones (See Figure 13). This does not follow the overall trend in overseas student enrollments where number of males outweighs the number of females (See Figure 1).

The international student data indicates that the majority of international students studying in Australian higher education institutions originate from Asia, are male, and study Business, Administration & Economics. In recent years there has been a significant increase in students studying postgraduate coursework degrees. There is also a higher commencing student rate than continuing student rate which either means that more overseas students are studying in Australia for short lengths of time, or are not continuing with their degree programs. The high commencing student rate may be further explained by the increase in the number of postgraduate coursework overseas students over the past ten years, and the interest in short-term Study Abroad and Exchange programs. International students are increasingly finding Australia an attractive country in which to study. One reason for international students choosing Australia as a study destination is the pursuit of a quality institution in which to study.

There is a discourse on quality that has emerged over the past decade and the term "quality" has essentially become the "catchphrase" of the 1990s. In terms of quality in higher education the idea is not new. Universities have been concerned with quality since their inception, primarily through review. The new wave of quality within higher education is indicative of the interrelated culture of business, industry and marketing making its mark on the sector. This phenomenon may be linked to the change from "aid" to "trade" in the international student evolution, and the emerging importance of higher education as an export industry. Students are commonly referred to "customers" or "clients" and quality is often evaluated in terms of Total Quality Management (TQM) (Baldwin, 1994). From the late 1980s market principles and concepts such as privatisation, 'user-pays', client service and competition in relation to Australian higher education institutions were clearly articulated in federal government policy (Meek & Wood, 1998).

The pursuit of quality has been called for at all levels of education (Rice & Gray, 1994). While discussion originally focused on the primary and secondary levels of education, it now includes higher education (Stein & Jones, 1994). Quality is one of the major issues in higher education today in industrialised countries, and there is a growing literature on the topic. Ministers, bureaucrats, employers, and business interests have become increasingly concerned about the outputs of higher education institutions, and how quality can be estimated, measured and improved, and are asking whether the taxpayers are getting value for their ongoing investment in higher education (Harman, 1994; Rice & Gray, 1994).

The Higher Education Council (1992) defined the basic set of characteristics of a quality program as one that is internationally recognised; is competitive in attracting participants and satisfies learners' needs. The Council argues that both community and peer assessments and judgements must be involved in the determination of quality. Lindsay (1994) outlines the difficulties in making judgements about quality:

Birnbaum (1994) also states that quality is defined according to one's own perspective. He goes on to say that "...not all definitions are equally acceptable. The notion of quality is primarily a matter of value rather than fact, and although assessments of quality can be reduced to technical processes, their validity depends on criteria established through either consensus or fiat" (Birnbaum, 1994, p70). Quality is something that is intangible - it is through trying to quantify it that problems occur.

A response to the debate regarding quality and how it can be quantified, has been an emphasis on quality assurance. This emphasis on quality assurance is not only a trend in Australian Higher Education but is a characteristic of universities worldwide (Higher Education Council, 1992). Countries for which quality assurance in higher education has become a major focus are the United States of America, the United Kingdom and New Zealand (Higher Education Division DETYA, 1998). Reasons include providing a return for the communities which support them and also international competition in attracting overseas students.

A quality assurance framework in Australian higher education has recently been developed through Commonwealth Government initiatives. Instrumental in this process was the Committee for Quality Assurance in Higher Education (CQAHE), established in 1993 to review quality assurance practices in publicly funded universities and to recommend to the Government the allocation of the Quality Assurance and Enhancement element of the operating grant. All publicly funded universities chose to be involved in the process, which was successful in helping to build new processes within universities and to effect a change of culture within the higher education sector (Higher Education Division DETYA, 1998). After three rounds of Quality Reviews in 1993, 1994 and 1995, university administrators and academics immediately look to inject quality assurance programs into any new initiatives (Back, Davis & Olsen, 1996).

The Quality Assurance and Enhancement funding programme was not continued due to high administration costs. Instead the Commonwealth Government asked the Higher Education Council (HEC) to link quality improvement into financial negotiations between the Commonwealth and the institutions. The HEC reported to the Government at the beginning of 1998, summarising details given by the universities. From 1998 onwards triennially-funded institutions include quality assurance and improvement plans in documentation were required as a part of the educational profiles process. Although there are minimum requirements for the plan institutions are encouraged to be individual. The current approach taken by the Commonwealth Government in regard to quality assurance and improvement plans, balances the need for public reporting with institutional autonomy (Higher Education Division DETYA, 1998).

Lindsay (1994) states that the introduction of the institutional quality review and reward system by the national government has led to Australian universities developing more "systematic, comprehensive, and explicit processes for monitoring and demonstrating quality" (Lindsay, 1994, p.55). Harman (1994) finds cause for concern with the academic audit process, the performance funding, and the ranking of institutions. He does however agree that Australian universities have been slow to tackle quality assurance problems that have been recognised for many years and have lacked a professional approach to evaluation and the monitoring of their own activities. It is agreed that commitment to quality is a central feature of academic culture, however the notion of quality has many shades of meaning and usage and its assessment in universities has previously been informal and selective (Lindsay, 1994).

Other significant elements of quality assurance framework identified in the report The Quality of Higher Education include:

• Inclusion in the registers of the Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF) - a comprehensive, nationally consistent but flexible framework for all qualifications in post-compulsory education and training and a key policy instrument for protecting credibility of the Australian education and training system. Full implementation is scheduled for 2000.

• Acceptance for membership of the Australian Vice-Chancellors' Committee (AVCC) and adherence to various guidelines and codes of practice.

• External validation, including participation in benchmarking and the accreditation activities of professional bodies and registration boards. The Commonwealth has also commissioned, under the Evaluations and investigations Programme (EIP), a pilot project which is examining the issue of how universities determine whether their degrees are of a good standard.

• The sector-wide efficiency and effectiveness indicators published annually by the Commonwealth in the Characterisitics and Performance of Higher Education Institutions. The three major data sources for performance indicators are: DETYA Higher Education student, staff and finance collections; DETYA Research Data Collection; and Graduate Careers Council of Australia (GCCA) annual Graduate Destination Survey (GDS) and Course Experience Questionnaire (CEQ). In addition to being published annually by the Commonwealth, the indicators are used by other publications such as the Good University Guide.

• Commonwealth Government funding initiatives aimed at encouraging innovation and good practice

International students are implicitly included in the debate about quality in Australian higher education institutions and in the quality assurance framework devised for Australian higher education institution. There is no specific quality assurance framework however that addresses the quality of the educational experience for international students.

A high level of perceived quality in Australian higher education institutions is essential if international students are to hold Australia in high regard as a potential destination for study. Increased competition from other English speaking western countries for international student numbers makes it important to identify the key factors that make the educational experience for international students a quality experience, and to define the educational experience of the international student. Is the educational experience simply the academic dimension (lectures, tutorials, etc ) or is it much more? Does quality in terms of the international student perspective relate more to satisfaction?

The Australian Vice-Chancellor's Committee (AVCC) specifically addresses international student educational quality through the code of practice for the provision of educational services to international students. The AVCC's Code of Ethical Practice in the Provision of Education to International Students by Australian Universities states in Section 1.2 of the preamble :

The code seeks to avoid being prescriptive but intends to encourage best practice in the provision of education to international students (Edmond, 1995). According to Edmond (1995), the CQAHE also has a strong interest in identifying quality assurance in international student matters, however the determination of the definition of quality is not clear.

It appears that although there is concern for the quality of education provided to international students studying at Australian higher education institutions, it is not clear whether policies and practices encouraging the quality provision of education is operationalised within these institutions. There is also a paucity of literature that defines what an educational experience means to international students.

In the proposed study international student education will be explored in the university context only, even though a proportion of total international students enrol in Technical and Further Education.

There is a large body of research in the international student education area. Of this body a significant proportion is based in higher education journals, such as Higher Education, Higher Education Research and Development, Research in Higher Education, Journal of Marketing for Higher Education and the Chronicle of Higher Education. Articles are also found in discipline specific journals such as the Journal of Professional Nursing, the Journal of Education for Business, Education Economics of Education Review and Applied Linguistics. Articles in the service area of institutions are also found in the British Journal of Guidance & Counselling, the Canadian Journal of Counselling, the Journal of Academic Librarianship and the Journal of Education for Library & Information Science.

Most of the literature emanates from the United States of America. Other main contributing areas are Australia, the United Kingdom and Canada. Broad areas of interest in the international student arena are Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL)/ English as a Second Language (ESL), policy, teaching and learning, marketing, services, psychological factors, social factors and recent studies in the area (See Figure 14).

Patterson, Romm & Hill (1998) stated that most of Australian literature has been concerned with "welfare and counselling issues, including students' language problems, physical and emotional difficulties, social alienation and discrimination, and cultural adjustment. More recently, however the issues have concerned the need to adopt a market philosophy with its accompanying customer orientation focus." (Patterson, Romm & Hill, 1998, p.136). Burke (in Edmond, 1995) provided the most comprehensive Australian study of major concerns of international students studying at a single institution. This study found the greatest difficulty for international students was their financial situation followed by the difficulty of managing demands of study and experiences of racial intolerance.

A brief overview of the nature and scope of the literature in the tertiary international student arena has been outlined. Examination of the literature further through the study will determine in more detail the broad areas of interest and identify gaps within the literature.

It would seem pertinent to end this preliminary paper with a list of the key questions that need to be answered in respect to quality of the international student's educational experience. There are three strands, comprising a number of layers, to be addressed whilst exploring the totality of the experience of international students at Australian higher education institutions. These questions may be useful in stimulating insights from students into their unique experiences.

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Baldwin, G. (1994). The Student as Customer: The Discourse of "Quality" in Higher Education. Journal of Tertiary Education Administration, 16(1), pp.125-134.

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