The particular case of rural and urban Aboriginal learners has been recognised in A National Statement on Mathematics for Australian Schools.

"There has been considerable research into mathematics in traditional Aboriginal communities and this has had some influence on the teaching of mathematics in these communities. Most Aboriginal Australians, however, live in rural and urban areas, but there is little research available on the linguistic and cultural influences on their learning of mathematics" (AEC 1991, p. 9).

Most investigations of Aboriginal people and the learning of mathematics have focused on geographically remote communities (Harris, 1991; Harris, 1990; Currie, Kissane & Kemp, 1989). However, factors such as a content driven mathematics curriculum, teacher explanations, the language used in the learning of mathematics, identity, the lack of content relevance for students, inconsistent use of concrete materials and the need for teacher sensitivity (French, French, Matthews, Stephens & Howard, 1994; Harris & Malin, 1994; Howard, 1998) are some of the contextual issues impacting upon Aboriginal children's school based mathematical learning.

The purpose of this ethnographic study was to investigate the held views of Aboriginal students, Aboriginal parents, Aboriginal educators and teachers towards the learning of mathematics in Years 5 and 6. Throughout the study there was continuing negotiation and consultation between the researcher and the various school and community Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal groups who were involved (Cutmore & Howard, 1995). These included state and regional Aboriginal Education Consultative Groups, Aboriginal Education Assistants, ASSPA Committees, Parent and Citizen Associations, school staffs, New South Wales Department of School Education and individual teachers, parents and students. At this point the willingness, co-operation and trust of all those groups involved with the study has to be acknowledged.

Conversational interviews (Spradley, 1979) were considered to be the most appropriate method for data collection as they enable participants to express their views in a way that surveys often do not allow. All participants were informed that their ideas would be shared with others and that pseudonyms would be used to maintain confidentiality. Interviews were transcribed and data analysis undertaken to develop categories for reporting the data. The time spent living in the community by the researcher and the researcher's ten year connection with the community lessens the possibility of bias within the development of the categories though it is still acknowledged that these findings are indicative of the participants views and may not be generalised across all students (Miles & Huberman, 1994).

The core categories for the analysis of the data evolved from the interviews and the principles for school mathematics as stated in A National Statement on Mathematics for Australian Schools (AEC 1991, p. 4-24). The statement provides a relevant framework within which discussion and recommendations can be presented. The interviews were analysed using related grounded theory with the researcher using a constant comparative approach (Glaser & Strauss, 1967) to identify core categories which represent major influences in the learning and teaching of mathematics. Seventeen core categories emerged from the analysis. Fourteen core categories derived from the national statement and 3 - People, Homework, Family Concern - generated from the interview comments:

Feelings; People; Language;

Context; Relevance; Homework;

Materials; Learning; Teaching;

Structures; Technology; Assessment;

Problem Solving; Family Concerns; Teacher/parent development;

Content; Other.

This paper focuses on the core category Context defined and contextualised as follows.

Context identifies issues related to the social, cultural, economic, historical and political contexts in which the learning of mathematics takes place.

A dimensionalisation of the core category identified a number of sub-categories [Aboriginal children and school, racism and discrimination, community, discipline and behaviour, Aboriginal parents, expectations teacher's role and language] into which the participant's belief statements were further analysed.

The girls identified a range of contextual issues which affect students learning of mathematics. Cassie believed that Aboriginal children found it hard to do mathematics but she did not know why. Susan thought that if Aboriginal students were "brainy" they would find mathematics easy. In fact she had decided how one could determine if a student was brainy.

Sam and Tina were positive that some Aboriginal students find mathematics hard and they suggested one way teachers could help.

Sam and Tina attended school regularly. They expressed their views on the contexts in which other children found themselves and suggested what should be done to improve their attendance.

The students were very aware of the contextual impact of the teacher, school, family and community issues which affected students' learning of mathematics.

The boys commented little on contextual issues in which mathematics is learnt. Dennis liked doing mathematics outside because "it gets too hot and stuffy in class." Darryl, on the other hand, preferred to do mathematics inside:

Brian liked to work outside "cause it's a lot different than being inside. You get to sit on the ground not seats. You get to do other things than times and stencils."

One parent, Dawn, spoke directly about many of the issues related to the context in which children learn. She believed in the importance of parent involvement but identified many reasons why it was not happening. She talked about the two significant issues of discipline and institutional racism and their impact upon the learning of Aboriginal children.

Comment was made about the issue of there being no age limit in the activities of Aboriginal families yet at school there were artificial age barriers between children as they progressed through the different grades. This is not the case in many Aboriginal families. At times, this age barrier can affect children as it highlights a conflict between the community structure and that of the schools.

The issues of institutional racism and family factors were seen by Dawn to influence Aboriginal children's learning. She believed that many teachers were not even aware of the institutional racism which existed. Dawn also believed that the more assimilated you appeared to be the more accepted you were.

The issue of discipline leading to detentions was a focus of part of the interview.

Dawn believed that from a school point of view Aboriginal student behaviour was the major concern. This was not a shared view of the community.

Dawn felt that a greater degree of communication between schools and the community would assist in developing more appropriate contexts for enhancing children's' learning.

Dawn was of the view that many of the schools focused on literacy with not the same degree of interest and funding going towards numeracy. There would seem to be the view that for many Aboriginal parents there still exists significant conflict between school and parents. Relatively few Aboriginal parents are involved in schools. Dawn believed that schools "need to have strategies to actually get more parents involved in making decisions in the school." She singled out apathy of Aboriginal people as one reason why more parents and more of the community were not involving themselves in schools.

Carol suggested that when children want to ask questions they do not think about how to phrase the questions in white terms because they do not know the white language system. Then they get picked up on how they ask the question, not what they want to know. Tracey believed many of the teachers "just don't understand where the kids are coming from." She also believed that " education was never part of our life until it was forced upon it ."

Phil and Sandy acknowledged that the influence of being Aboriginal affected children's learning.

The values that affect Aboriginal behaviour were often reflected in students' attendance at school. Aboriginal people value their right not to listen to you. Half way through a meeting someone may stand and walk out. They are not being rude they just do not want to listen anymore. Crystal suggested that this is what Aboriginal children may do at school. She believed it was not right, but placed the dilemma in the context of being Aboriginal.

Crystal believed that Aboriginal children as young as ten and eleven identified that life was different for them.

Many Aboriginal children live in situations where they witness a lot of unemployment. This context can affect how children come to school and they reach a stage of, "What's the point learning at school?"

School and families have to work together. The Aboriginal educators find it difficult to get Aboriginal parents involved in the school. Many schools are bicultural with a huge range of parental socio-economic backgrounds. Crystal had begun a university course and she felt that she was seen now to have changed. The white fellas treated her and viewed her as being different to other Aboriginal people.

Continually, as Aboriginal children attend school and become educated they have to keep asking, "Who am I?" The role of school and its effect on changing Aboriginal children was a critical issue for Crystal.

Crystal was annoyed that many of the intervention programs for Aboriginal children are taught by non-Aboriginal teachers. She believed that "some teachers aren't committed to them and the kids know that." Crystal believed that most Aboriginal parents want their children to learn and that the myth that they don't needs to be put away. Moreover, " the present situation is not working for the majority of Aboriginal kids." She believed that " often the teachers don't have the knowledge or the experience" to work with Aboriginal communities and Aboriginal students. Many have limited expectations of the potential of Aboriginal students.

Crystal believed that the parents, children, the school and other parts of the community all had there expectations for Aboriginal children learning at school and that across these groups there were similarities and differences. Parents were concerned for what their children were learning at school. Crystal knew that there was "a difference between what's real and what the community sees as important. I send my kids to school but are they going to learn what they need to learn. I mean, we have illiterate kids at fifteen who have been through the school system."

Michele discussed recognition for Aboriginal children and their achievements which lead to issues of self esteem, parental involvement and suspension. She finished by highlighting the need for teachers to visit the homes of the children they taught just to understand from where the children were coming.

When Aboriginal children were placed on suspension Michele often got upset. "I say I wish you had of come to me first and maybe we could have sorted the problem out before we got to suspension. Something might have happened at home at night and you don't know anything about it." There appeared to be an increase in school suspensions with no apparent reasons. Michele talked of the need for teacher awareness and sensitisation to the issues facing parents and Aboriginal children. She also believed the issue of body language was important for Aboriginal children and that "Murri kids seem to learn it right from the start of when they come into school. Some Murri kids from pre-school seem to know a lot more when they come into primary, I don't know." The issues of language and the two worlds that Aboriginal children live in became a theme in the interview.

There are children who come to a school as new arrivals and the issues that they bring with them can affect their learning. Sally believed that it was sometimes the little things that put children off, "Do you know my kid was stood up and told that they weren't in school uniform. Then they expect them to go and learn maths after they've just been rubbished." Michele agreed.

Michele believed that the teachers should come to the AEA's more often because the Aboriginal educators know a lot about the Aboriginal children, the community and strategies to help Aboriginal children learn at school. However, "there's only a couple who'll come to me and it's only when they're in lots of trouble with a kid. I think they should be using us more."

Mr Kennedy talked about the context in which he was teaching and how different it was from teaching the top mathematics class last year to a lower class this year.

He believed that the achievement levels of the Murri students had "a lot to do from the very start of school. What they know then and what the teacher has to build on." He thought that the home did not value a lot of what was needed for school. He viewed the school as being a place where children's knowledge was built upon. He used the metaphor of a brick wall being laid.

I asked Mrs Allan why there was only one Murri student in the top mathematics class. She explained her views referring to Natalie, an Aboriginal student in the second mathematics class.

Mrs Allan was sure that the home life of some of the Aboriginal children would be beyond the endurance of many teachers.

Mrs Allan went on to talk about issues of cross cultural learning that she perceived.

Table 1 Aboriginal Children and School

Table 2 Racism and discrimination

Table 3 Community

Table 4 Discipline and Behaviour

Table 5 Aboriginal Parents

Table 6 Expectations

Table 7 Teacher's Role

Table 8 Language

The Aboriginal parents and Aboriginal educators were well aware of contextual issues influencing the learning of Aboriginal children. The teachers focused their comments on the Aboriginal child at school and their teaching role. The Aboriginal girls were a little more forthcoming than the Aboriginal boys though neither group had probably any previous opportunity to consider and discuss amongst themselves contextual factors affecting their learning.

Teachers believed that many Aboriginal children should be achieving better at school than they currently are. They believed that this occurred because Aboriginal children start school with an underdeveloped set of skills and knowledge and that much of the work of the early school years is beyond them. The teachers' view was that Aboriginal children saw school as separate to home life. Aboriginal educators believed that Aboriginal children should come to school. They believed that children know that some teachers are not committed to them and that the majority of Aboriginal children are not being served well schools. Aboriginal educators expressed the belief that Year 5 and 6 Aboriginal children become more aware that they are black and realise that they are different from their non-Aboriginal peers. At this age Aboriginal children start to realise that they are limited by the opportunities available to them. For Aboriginal children, a critical learning time is in Year 5. Physical aspects such as classroom noise levels were identified by Aboriginal girls as impacting on their learning.

Aboriginal parents recognised that the age structure of schools created an artificial barrier that did not exist within Aboriginal communities. Whereas Aboriginal children mix in with activities in the community separation occurred at school. Within the mathematics classroom there are two systems of learning occurring and many Aboriginal children have to think in two different ways. Aboriginal children have to seek their identity in the mathematics classroom as in other learning contexts. Aboriginal children live, work and learn within two cultures and often they do not know where they belong. As a result of these contextual issues being identified, perhaps, the following question needs to be considered, What does it mean to be an Aboriginal child learning mathematics ?

Aboriginal educators clearly believed that racism and discrimination exist in schools in subtle ways. Teachers need to be aware of the institutional racism that occurs in schools. Also, many Aboriginal children they may have a perceived 'school reputation' which travels with them from year to year while others may be victimised in some schools.

Discipline and behaviour was seen by Aboriginal parents as a major concern of many teachers. For Aboriginal parents, effective discipline strategies have to be based on consistent school practices, the co-operative development of policies and an evaluation of the role of detention.

Apathy amongst Aboriginal parents regarding their involvement in schools does exist. However, it is a myth to believe that all Aboriginal parents were disinterested in the education of their children often they just have not been told of the mathematical difficulties being encountered by their children. Many Aboriginal parents felt intimidated by school based on previous personal experiences. Aboriginal parents need to be informed in ways which support their involvement in schools and the learning of their children.

Aboriginal children live up to what is expected of them and for Aboriginal children such expectations come from their parents, their own expectations, those of the school and those of the community. Further investigation is needed of the expectations from these four groups and how such expectations are expressed and explained to children. As is evident by the recent focus on raising expectations in NSW schools (DET, 1998) this is a significant issue for school communities generally.

Aboriginal girls believe that some teachers are not sufficiently knowledgeable at mathematics and they should be. Teachers may need to be upgraded in their mathematics teaching competency to meet children's expectations. Teachers believed that many of their peers do not appreciate Aboriginal history and were not aware of the factors influencing how some Aboriginal children live. They believed that teachers teach in ways which favour non-Aboriginal children and that this may occur totally subconsciously. This view suggested the need for some type of peer observation and evaluation of the teaching strategies used in the classroom.

Aboriginal educators were willing to provide advice to teachers and teachers need to seek this advice out. There has to be a greater appreciation for the knowledge and expertise of Aboriginal educators in providing advice to teachers and in informing teachers of situations in which Aboriginal children may be living which impacted upon their learning.

Not only do Aboriginal children have to speak a different language at school but teachers expect it of them. The children are often criticised by teachers for the way they speak rather than for what they have to say. Aboriginal children have to be told that they have to speak differently at school to the way they speak at home. For many Aboriginal children this dual language learning must be taken into account in the development of literacy programs, in the teacher's teaching and in teachers general interaction with children. The language that Aboriginal children bring with them to school needs to be valued and respected, the learning of the school based language needs to be appreciated and evident in the learning / teaching environment.

An obvious conclusion that can be drawn from the belief statements of the participants was the complex nature of issues related to the social, cultural, economic, historical and political contexts in which the learning of mathematics takes place. This may appear to be self evident however the extent to which such beliefs were espoused highlighted the need for teachers to both be aware and to seek out the views of Aboriginal children, parents, educators and to reflect on their own held beliefs. Beliefs have an impact on the learning and teaching of mathematics and the ways in which interactions within the school community are facilitated and evaluated. There are two systems of learning occurring in the mathematics classroom. Many Aboriginal children have to think in two different ways to achieve at school. The contexts in which Aboriginal children live and learn may result in many Aboriginal children not achieving to their potential. Contextual factors are critical in Aboriginal children's learning of mathematics.

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