Ray Barker and Allyson Holbrook
The University of Newcastle
The investigation and description of education outside the formal educational sector
Two years ago the authors undertook to map (within a specific area - the Hunter region) the education activity of those institutions, groups and enterprises not usually included under the rubric of education. We called this vast sector of educational activity 'other education'. The study was envisaged as historical, exploratory and descriptive and intended to cover the period 1900 to 1990 if sources were available. Thus our earliest efforts were devoted to locating sources, defining the 'other' sector and identifying ways in which we could describe the nature of the educational activity that occurred in this sector. The latter was critical if meaningful comparison between diverse educational 'providers' was to be achieved and an analysis of trends attempted. A large part of the motivation behind the study was to provide a framework to render 'other' education visible and to go some way toward providing a more comprehensive picture of educational activity in society.[1]
Following from the initial document analysis and the development of three categories of analysis 'educational intent, 'educational practices' and 'educational strategies, the next stage of the study was try and 'map' other educational activity in the Hunter based on the activities of some seventy providers. The results of the initial mapping were reported earlier this year[2]. The categories and method of analysing the data will be presented later on in this paper. The final stage of the project was to analyse some cases in depth, to further test and validate the method, but equally for the important information that can be expected to emerge from an historically contextualised understanding of the educational role played by key enterprises. This type of study can also be anticipated to enhance understanding of 'learning organisations'.
The cases selected have the most complete and rich documentary records for the period under study. Finding such documentation presents a problem because of the general practice of most commercial organisations to dispose of records after a seven year period. If data were regularly collected on the educational activities of such bodies the total educational activity of selected sectors within the community could be tracked. This is another reason why developing descriptive categories that can be broadly applied is important.
The National Roads and Motorists' Association (NRMA) is the focus of this paper. The NRMA is an organisation similar in objectives and operations to the Automobile Association United Kingdom (AA) and Royal Automobile Club of Victoria (RACV). There was a branch in Newcastle and we were specifically interested in the educational activities of that body as they pertained to Hunter region residents, but the case study reported here extends to the NRMA's total operations. The first half of the paper will be devoted to providing some historical background of the NRMA's educational activities and the second half to an analysis of those activities. The latter will employ a set of criteria especially devised by the researchers to examine and compare 'other' providers of education over time.
In 1990 the NRMA (a mutual association) had a membership of over two million, representing a third (38%) of the combined population of NSW and the ACT. This ratio of membership to car registration was in 1987 the highest for any motoring organisation in the world.[3]
History abounds with examples of organisations which set out to educate the citizens of the communities they serve. For example, the avowed intention of religious institutions to develop specific community values.[4] The WCTU provides one early example of an organisation with the specific intention of educating women.[5]
The intent, aim and focus of the NRMA, since its foundation in 1920 with 607 members, was to educate the community in the areas of safety, road service, technical skills and mutual benefit assistance with insurance and legal matters. Implementation of this intent involved using members' fees and donations in areas of lobbying, advertising, publishing, cartography and lectures. These endeavours flowed into the wider community and were in small or large part educational in intent.
For the purposes of this research educational intent is the conscious and deliberate effort of one person (group, organisation) to impart knowledge to others and influence their manner of thinking, guide behaviour, shape values and attitudes and develop skills with the expectation that the effort will produce enduring and effective results in the learner. It may involve the same effort by one person to educate themselves.[6] This article sets out the educational intent, practices and strategies employed by the NRMA from 1920.
From its early years the NRMA prospered. Making profits was important and income was chiefly derived from its insurance activities. In 1925, Mr G. H. Scougall, 'a gentleman of wide experience in insurance matters' was appointed to head up the Insurance Department.[7]
Becoming the voice of the motoring public was important too. How did the NRMA extend such influence? It adopted a strategy of pushing for increased membership, thereby gaining access to an expanding secton of the community. Such a strategy implied multi-directional practices consistent with educational intent. The NRMA became a major contributor to political debates about responsibilities for road transport, informing the public about the do's and don'ts of driving, vehicles, and the associated changes in facilities and regulatory requirements. The original focus on assisting motoring members with their vehicle problems ( road services ) extended dramatically to include lobbying governments to provide better and safer roads, design of road networks, development of tourism and relevant road maps, insurance, providing legal advice and engineering advice for members, lobbying for road and traffic signs, safety, training programmes from kindergarten to advanced driving groups and lobbying for safer conditions. Dissemination and transfer of knowledge with the intention of improving road safety was a key element, be it teaching the motorist to watch tyre wear, lobbying police to wear white gloves at night, or providing touring guides or advice on legal assistance.
Within the NRMA staff development did not become a key focus for management until the 1970s. Before that staff training was traditional on-the-job learning plus a conscious management effort to develop a culture of service in staff. The culture of the mutual association was one of service, not one of selling a product. The organisation could flourish only if this assistance/service culture permeated all levels of staff. The NRMA was a diverse organisation. Self-development (self-motivated learning) appeared to be the practical option for staff. Wherever possible trained people were recruited but such recruits often still had to learn on-the-job, for example, C. A. Gregory was a journalist on the Daily Telegraph when recruited in 1924 to manage the fledging Tourist Department.
However, following the introduction of computers, together with increased regulatory attention being paid to occupational education at government level, the NRMA decided in the late 1970s to introduce a staff development department. Thus two distinct paths of educational intent followed. The first was to educate the public (of all ages and all groups) about the importance of road safety practices. The second was to educate the staff in ways demanded by a expanding and profitable business.
The NRMA started life as the New South Wales Branch of the National Road Association (NRA), an organisation formed in Victoria as part of the Good Roads movement as a voice agitating at the political level for better roads for the motor car. Throughout the state, local government authorities were turning their attention to the provision of better highways.[8] The establishment of the Main Roads Board in 1925 was due to the efforts of the NRMA.[9]
Initially, due to the fast and ever changing nature of the motoring industry, the services provided by the NRMA were often ill-defined and blurred in form. However, the need to understand one's vehicle, to drive safely in unusual terrain, and to develop map reading skills and knowledge of geography were clearly evident in the philosophy and brief of the association as early as 1924:
While the motor car of today is a reliable vehicle, touring often takes the motorist to out-of-the-way places where service stations are not, and where the driver is entirely dependent on his own resources in the event of anything going wrong.[10]
Further:
Driving a car is no job for a weakling, a fool or an irresponsible. It is more scientific than walking or swimming and requires the exercise of more brains and more diligence than most other human actions. It being a science, those of us who profess to be "scientists" should think scientifically and by the study of the most prolific causes of accidents, evolve for ourselves a safe working policy.[11 ]
The Technical Information branch of the NRMA offered: 'interviews, investigations, advice and reports [to] cover every conceivable problem to the motor car'.[12 ] This meant that material was gathered from overseas and disseminated. There were also three qualified engineers on staff in 1926 (7 in 1928). By 1927 the service of providing technical information counted among the largest service 'of its kind in the world'. For example letters to members on technical matters and advice numbered 8,080 (out of a membership of 33,147) and a further 6000 had received such advice in person (the figures were 10,175 and 7800 in 1928). There was a 'vigorous policy of extending NRMA service to country districts.' This policy undoubtedly assisted in the development of rural NSW. The country expansion was controlled by an 'Inspector of Branches'.
It has to be recognised just how 'new' a phenomenon motoring was when the NRMA began its operations. In 1925 the NRMA introduced examinations to test potential Motor Mechanics. A Board of Examination was appointed and certificates of competency were issued.[13] In 1926 three examinations for Motor Mechanics were held. Altogether 66 candidates passed. Numerous requests for examinations were received from country centres and it was expected centres would multiply. It was reported that the: 'results of the examinations are most satisfactory in view of the fact that candidates are frequently NOT prepared beforehand by suitable tuition'. Such activities were 'well received by the public and press'. By the end of 1927 there were105 NRMA motor mechanics certificate holders. The NRMA also supplied trainers for motor mechanics courses within technical colleges; supplied lecturers for 'handyman' courses for various organisations such as YMCA, Progress Associations, Railway Institutes, Rotary and police clubs and also supplied lecturers for car maintenance courses.
Initially the NRMA established an Employment Bureau for Motor Mechanics and chauffeurs, but as with many of its other activities , e.g. exam setting, such activities became redundant as other bodies stepped in to provide a more specialised service.
In 1925 an agreement was reached to cooperate with the Government Tourist Bureau to publish a series of road maps, specially prepared by H.E.C. Robinson Ltd, 'easily read and replete with detailed information'. This action was taken at a time when NSW roads were very poor, maps unavailable and knowledge by the public of destinations and how to get there very sparse'[14] In addition to maps a system of daily reports and weekly bulletins was developed, becoming a regular feature in the Sydney press. Last minute information was broadcast by wireless at weekends. [15] By 1928 some 20,000 personal interviews had been given on touring matters.
Safety campaign funds were raised from companies allied to the motor industry such as oil, rubber, motor dealers, car suppliers. This equalled forty per cent of the income for 1924 and demonstrated the strong support given by industry to the efforts of the NRMA. It was felt that many accidents in which motor vehicles have been involved could have been avoided by a greater 'safety consciousness' on the part of both drivers and pedestrians; and in 1929 the Association proposed 'an intensive education effort.' It was reported:
Our influence in securing better roads and all round justice for motorists is largely measured by the numerical strength of our membership ...The following may be mentioned as being some of the more important questions dealt with :- Limitation of loads; provision of white gloves for traffic constables on night duty; establishment of car registration offices at selected suburban centres; improved and standard system of caution and direction notices throughout the State; display of names of towns and villages on post offices; abolition of level crossings; amount of motor vehicle depreciation allowed by taxation authorities in respect of income tax; improvement of vehicular ferry services; elimination of blind and dangerous corners; adequate maintenance of tramway areas on roads.[16]
Such activities contributed to the public's awareness (education) of the role and place of the motor car in the community.
The council of the NRMA 'ceaselessly advocated road improvement in all its aspects', and during the late 1920s members were 'urged to render every assistance by personally protesting to members of parliament' against the motor taxation introduced by the NSW Lang Government. In 1929 it was reported that: 'The NRMA is justified in claiming a large measure of the credit for the generally improved condition of the roads in New South Wales.'[17]
Dissemination of information soon became a key activity.Twenty percent of the income of the NRMA in 1923 was expended on 'Good Roads' (later became 'The Open Road').[18] By 1927, 'Many tens of thousands of personal consultations' supplying information on touring had been attended to in addition to advice provided by telephone and post. Furthermore many thousands of column inches was published in city and country newspapers-'Ventilat[ing] ... all matters calling for public discussion'.3 The NRMA's management attributed many reforms affecting motorists to its wide publicity campaigns. In 1929 'The Open Road' became a fortnightly rather than monthly publication.
Some fifty years later the NRMA was still expanding these activities and its brief had come to include a strong element of community safety and welfare. The NRMA waged poster and other media campaigns on drink driving, AIDS, smoking, car theft, and Neighbourhood Watch, to name but a few 'contemporary' concerns.
In 1927 country centres were extended. As for membership, in 1924 it was 1,571, in 1926, 17,252 as motorists 'realised' belonging had 'advantages'.[20] In 1928 membership shot up to 48,625.
By the end of its first decade the NRMA had expanded membership from 1500 to over 62,000 and had imposed itself as a strong lobbying force for the dissemination of information about better roads and associated motoring facilities. Part of that effort was intended to heighten public awareness of the strengths and weaknesses of the motor industry in Australian society. The statewide information services, the tourist department, examinations and technical advice, were all expanded by public demand. The public forced the pace of growth in the services provided, particularly in country towns. NRMA members were eager for education (information and counselling, guide books, maps, technical and legal help) and pushed for more. It was not so much the NRMA imposing 'you will learn this or that', or 'it is our intention to teach you at our pace', The reality was 'this is what we (members) want to know, get on with whatever it takes to supply it'. Opposed to a traditional educational perspective of 'we know what you want', we will structure curricula, train our own teachers and regulate your entry points. The public pushed for more of what they wanted, and the culture remained one of response to servicing needs.[21]
The Annual Reports throughout the decade were couched in terms of growth of both membership and services but education of the public was not stressed directly, even though the NRMA editors demonstrated the realities of motoring to the wider community. However by 1929 the NRMA started to emphasise more directly its educational role with a campaign in Safety Education.[22]
The NRMA sought to extend driver education activities into the sphere of children and schools. From the 1930s the Safety Department of the NRMA pushed for a curriculum of safety education from kindergarten to High school. But this is where the legitimacy of other education can be seen to be at 'odds' with formal education. Key educationalists in NSW objected to the NRMA's proposal to introduce safe driving lessons in schools as not being 'education' (the Wyndham Committee rejected such a submission in 1961). The NRMA persisted with their campaign. Some other states and the private education system did introduce such classes.[23] For example the West Australian Education Department implemented education about driving and road safety in 1950.
The NRMA received the material support of the Motor Traders' Association and General Motors-Holden Pty Ltd with respect to driver education The latter offered a car (on loan) each year to each school. Such a scheme was the 'first of its type outside of the USA'.[24] Nevertheless, in March 1966 the Assistant Minister for Education Wal Fife and Director General of Education Harold Wyndham again rejected an NRMA approach.[25]
Other organisations and individuals were also actively engaged in promoting driver education and road safety programmes in schools. For example, Hugh King, (who became Assistant to the Director of Technical Education 1962-1975) travelled a parallel and sometimes joint path with the NRMA.
King's endeavours highlight differences between the priorities of different 'divisions' of public education. In 1954 he submitted a report to the NSW Survey of Secondary Schools (Wyndham Committee) recommending the introduction of a programme of driving instruction into NSW schools.[26] He was not invited to appear as a witness and his recommendations were rejected. His submission reported the results of 30 research studies undertaken into the impact of trained and untrained drivers (including bicycle riders). The studies provided evidence of significant improvement in accident rates and 'violations'.[27]
Arthur Denning, Director of NSW Technical Education, made a submission to the same committee recommending that technical education be integrated to a greater degree into the secondary education curriculum. Denning was not invited to appear before the Committee nor was his submission successful.[28] It would be unwise to conclude on the basis of this that that the committee had no interest in road safety issues at all. Driver education in NSW was caught up in other concerns not least of which were inter-divisional disputes within education.[29] In 1959 King was invited to submit a report and to appear as a witness before the Senate Select Committee on Road Safety.[30] His submissions had the support of H. Bland, Secretary of the Department of Labour, but NSW state schools remained closed to the initiative.
On the one hand there was King, the NRMA, the Motor Traders Association, the Police Department, the Department of Transport, the Road Safety Council, to name a few, all advocating driver instruction in schools. On the other there were the Departmental officials such as Wyndham and Kemp (NSW deputy Director of Secondary Schools), rejecting the initiatives to take driver education into schools, because it was not seen as the province of school activity. Between 1961-64 these differences received quite an airing.[31]
The Australian Automobile Association (AAA) also lobbied continuously for driver education in schools during the 1950s and 1960s. In 1958 the AAA submitted a motion to the 8th meeting of the Australian Road Safety Code Committee suggesting the introduction of driving instruction and driving schools. This submission noted the fact that 61% of the 19,181 eligible high schools in the USA offered some type of driver education. But it was rejected by NSW abstaining.[32] In 1967 the AAA asked E. A. Huxtable, the then Chief Traffic Engineer of the NRMA, to review and report on how other countries viewed driver education in high schools.[33] Huxtable reported to the AAA in October 1968 after visiting eight countries. Consequently the AAA adopted as policy to continue to their efforts to encourage in all ways possible a focus on road safety, including driver instruction, in schools. One specific action was to invite each State Director-General of Education to visit West Australia to inspect their ongoing educational activities in this area. Only two States, Tasmania and South Australia, accepted.[34]
The training of adults to teach drivers was another messy issue. In 1957 Heffron, the NSW Minister for Education, gave permission for a course for Driver Instructors to be introduced by the Department of Technical Education. King introduced a programme to run three times a year between 1959-1968 and which had, at times, a waiting list of 100. However, after the Motor Vehicles Drivers Act No.60, 1961 was passed,[35] demand for the Driver's Instruction Course faded so that by 1968 continuation was not justified. The Act failed to stipulate specific qualifications in teaching for Driver Instructors. As a result anyone could set up as a teacher and there were many who did. Weekly advertisements in the Sydney Morning Herald proclaimed: 'Drivers required full or part-time to be trained as Driving Instructors'. Those responding were informed that they could 'get a driving instructor's licence the same day' and that they would be found work as instructors.[36] There were 200 driving establishments listed in the Sydney Telephone Book in 1956. An instructor's correspondence course was introduced in 1969.[37]
The dearth of qualified instructors was highlighted in 1966 when I. W. Godsell, Chairman of the NSW Public Service Board, following a Board decision, requested the Department of Technical Education to make available a course for 'every person in the Public Service required in the course of his duties to drive a motor vehicle', but the Director of Technical Education at the time could not help. For one thing, commercial driving establishments were experiencing difficulty in recruiting driving instructors and for another, in NSW (outside the Police Department) there was 'no provision for the systematic training of teachers or instructors for driver education'.[38]
Other organisations, which could be described as a network of organisations actively working for additional road safety education, were the Motor Traders Association, NSW Police Force, insurance companies, MTA, Road Safety Council, Shire Councils, oil companies as well as both Chambers of Commerce and of Manufactures. These entities all exchanged data and actively lobbied government departments. Noteworthy are the differences in focus, e.g. the Motor Traders concentrated on the vehicle, eg. mirrors, brakes; the MTA on roads, the police force on regulations and the like.
Individual schools in NSW cooperated with the NRMA campaigns on Road Safety and Driving. In 1961 for example Knox Grammar School introduced a driver programme (taken in the boys' own time), as did Manly Boys High,[39] Newcastle High School[40], James Ruse and Wagga Wagga high schools.[41] After 50 years of campaigns by the NRMA, police force and other safety groups the NRMA was still issuing brochures for distribution to parents as part of a package 'Road Safety - A School Community Issue'.26 The NRMA, frequently joined other like-minded associations, e.g. the NSW Police Force, YMCA, NSW Safety Council, Rotary and the AAA, in pursuing specific safety regulatory measures within the education system such as: marked crossings, flags, bus procedures, and lights, in addition to instruction in road safety measures. These activities, deliberately aimed at the actual and potential driving public of NSW and ACT, provided a strong educational strand in the public domain.
The NRMA, in association with the AAA, sponsored scholarships to universities and in 1956 the establishment of a department of traffic engineering within the University of New South Wales.
Before 1974 staff training received scant attention. Training was was left to local operating managers and supervisors, with Road Service Patrolmen receiving more attention in regards training, than did the office staff. By 1975 changes were impacting on the NRMA at an accelerating pace. The growth in members, service calls, insurance accounts, patrolmen communication, computer installations, technical updates in vehicles and associated equipment all demanded rapid and focused attention. Often the existing staff had to be retrained and this is especially evident in the 1980s. A further illustration is evident in the growth in patrolmen in NSW from 200 in 1973 to 1200 by 1998.
From 1986, when 'Total Quality Control' as a management strategy was introduced into the NRMA, the range and depth of staff education received closer attention. Total Quality Control provided clear illustrations to management that investment in training paid off. For example after 53% of the staff had been trained, and resultant suggestions implemented, unable-to-attend calls were reduced by 12%, reducing NRMA costs by $161,000 pa. A second example of worth was provided by improving the Home Insurance process. Costs were reduced by $247,000 pa and improved customer service resulted.[43] The 1990 Annual Report noted that 65% of staff had been trained in Total Quality Control which had resulted in savings of $4.7 million per year.
Across the whole organisation each staff member, on average, undertook more than one week of skills development this year. This was additional to the training given to new employees ... We had a staff turnover rate of 1.715% for 1990 to June 30 compared with more than 30% in 1986 ... We make every effort to provide NRMA employees with the skills they need. Consequently our budget for training employees in relatively larger than most Australian companies.'[44]
The NRMA was a leader in many innovative activities - tourism, technical research, computer and communication technology. Staff for these innovative practices had to be sought from people recruited with related if not 'tailor made' skills. Individuals recruited from outside had to develop their own staff.
In June 1982 A. Elder, Senior Training Officer, reported to the Director of Personnel, A.E. Bennett on the courses conducted in Head Office between 1 January and 31 May 1982. Six hundred and seventy six people attended seventy seven courses, which lasted from a half day to three days. The centrally operated Training Department, in February 1987, had a staff of twenty-two persons. Departments such as Road Service employed separate additional trainers. The two tier structure of training that emerged can be seen to be very much a product of both historical and contemporary management decisions and training philosophies.
The NRMA is but one of more than 60 institutions that the authors have examined as providers of 'other education' spanning a nine decade period. Our main aim has been to map 'other' educational provision over time - globally, by provider group and by individual provider. Our decisions were informed by the range of documentation available and its limitations. Given the patchiness of data for many firms, qualitative assessments of a global nature are often all that are possible. The challenge is to provide categories that are meaningful across 'providers' and decades. What emerged was a descriptive structure based on three categories of information - educational intent, practices and strategies.
The categories educational intent and strategies are represented by a range of sub-categories (each indicating a different facet or dimension), and each of these can be represented on a continuum. The authors trained themselves to assign numeric ratings based on the total information available. It needs to be said at this point that the categories emerged from the information of 63 institutions, and was not imposed on the data. The rating uses a seven point scale collapsed to three, hence representing three intervals on a continuum. If one considers Figure 1 for example, number 1 would represent the far left and number 3 the far right. The authors have developed graphs for each of the institutions they have studied, but these are for comparative purposes. None are provided in this paper.
The practices category is sub-divided into four dimensions. For practices (Figure 2) the scale has three intervals (1= very little, 2 = more than a little to quite a lot, 3 = A lot). The result is a three point scale for each of the categories.
The total number of indicators is 20, and there are 6 time periods. The latter represent two periods of twenty years 1900-1919, 1920-1939; then three periods of ten years (1940-1959, 1960-1969, 1970-1979) and one of eleven (1980-1990). It was felt that it would be more meaningful to group the data in this way because the climate of provision changed after World War Two, especially with the growth of technical equipment (eg, computing by the 1970s) and the expansion of certification.
It is not possible in this paper to provide a full explanation of all the dimensions in the three categories the authors have developed to describe the educational activities of educational providers in the 'other' educational sphere (for this description see Holbrook and Barker 1998).
Educational intent has aready been defined above. To illustrate this consider a manager of a firm, for example. S/he may expect workers to come to a job virtually equipped with all the skills and knowledge and then 'pick-up' what they do not know on the job. If management does not provide any means, or use strategies, to facilitate or promote the latter there is no intention to educate, according to the above definition.
It needs to be pointed out that if there are no records (or oral testimony) to indicate intent, the authors could not determine intention even if it existed. The researchers have had to acknowledge such parameters in their task to uncover usable details of 'intentional' and 'other' educational activity in the community.
Intention is not a simple concept, there are several dimensions to intent each with its own 'intensity'. These are represented in the continuum below.
| Educational Intent | Continuum |
|---|---|
|
not main focus----------------------------------------------main focus |
|
others/clients-------------------------------------------own personnel |
|
undifferentiated----------------------------------------------specific |
|
no qualification------------------------------qualification/credential |
|
informing------------------------------------------------------shaping (skills/knowledge) (values/attitudes) |
|
casual/needs based--------------------------------continuous/sustained |
|
self-------------------------------------------------managed by others |
Figure 1
A school is the obvious example of an organisation for which education is the main focus.Outside of this specific educational sphere (where there is usually a clear indication of intent in the form of a curriculum) practices often provide the best information about intent to educate. The intent to educate may not exist, especially in business, if other cheaper and easier options are available, such as the possibility of obtaining skilled migrants. Nonetheless most enterprises engage in 'preparation' and induction of new staff, albeit informally. The vast majority of businesses would be represented at the 'not main focus' end of the continuum, whereas professional institutes may be much closer to the other end.
Throughout the period under study the NRMA maintained its educational intentions, but the balance of focus shifted. When motoring was new the focus on education was correspondingly higher because there was so little information available. There was a huge gap to fill, and this extended to staff training as well (e.g. the setting of examinations).
Intent is intimately related to the group or individuals targeted by the organisation for some form of nonformal or informal education, such as induction into routine tasks (recipients). An organisation's key reason for existence might be to educate an undifferentiated group eg 'the public'. For others education may be marginal but when they engage in such activity they target a very specific group (eg manager trainees holding a computing degree). Hence, for the categories to be adequately descriptive they must capture at least two dimensions of the target group, namely their relation to the provider (recipients I), and the qualities targetted by the provider (recipients II). In the NRMA the balance was initially toward educating the members (clients) rather than staff development. There is little evidence of systematic training arrangements or head office attention to this dimension until the 1970s. Some six percent of the payroll between 1986-1991 was spent on training (Total Quality Management was introduced in 1986). It was in these later years that staff training gained in relative importance in terms of intent and this was reflected in the growth of specific programs (see appendix 1). Very recently (outside the period of this study) in 1995 a learning and development department was established.
Intimately tied up with the broad notion of intent is the level of outcome (level) anticipated by the provider. This can be very complicated and tends to fall across several dimensions, the type of 'credential', the thrust of the learning, its form and duration. Often the provider's intent is to 'upgrade' their clientele and/or personnel to a formally recognised standard. The most simple way to show this is to determine the degree to which the educational activity leads to some 'recognised' credential. At one end of the spectrum would be the one off, non certificated workshop, informal induction training, or encouragement to read technical literature, and at the other sponsorship to obtain a degree. If the thrust of the educational activities of the organisation is to upgrade the professional/trade qualifications of the personnel, or to provide such qualifications this would be at the right hand end of the continuum.
Initially the NRMA was actively involved in developing the knowledge and skills of motorists as well as motor mechanics in general. with respect to the latter they became involved in setting examinations, however such activities were quickly surrendered to the IAME and the technical colleges. Self driving courses were held but a network of other organisations was rapidly established to deliver them. Hence the intent to facilitate/provide the attainment of credentials and awards was low and remained so. The latter is consistent with the main educational objectives of the NRMA.
What also distinguishes intended outcomes is the thrust of the education. An organisation's main objective with respect to education may be the inculcation of particular values, ie, the main objective may be a shaping one in much the same vein as a churches' teachings have a shaping or character forming role. On the other hand the aim may be that personnel or clients learn very specific knowledge or skills. For example, an enterprise may not have enough people qualified to use a particular machine or computing system. If a body whose only educational intent is to induct new workers in basic operating skills then this would belong toward the far left of the continuum. On its own the dimension main objective is not helpful in defining educational intent which is why several dimensions have been identified.
For the NRMA specific expertise was far less important than developing the right attitudes to motoring and vehicle ownership, e.g. to seek expert advice, to obey road rules and show respect for the roads, other drivers, one's vehicle and the terrain. This dimension of intention stayed stable over time. A similar yet different picture emerges when staff training is examined. The central theme was development of a service culture (although there is little evidence as to how this was achieved)
To continue with the example of simple skills induction with respect to the next category - duration, obviously this type of activity is casual and needs based. The expectation that staff will attend special seminars sponsored by the organisation on a regular basis is more toward the right hand side of the continuum. Taking on staff with the express intent to 'release them' to attend university for a set period is the extreme right hand side. The main educational thrust of the NRMA's intention is toward developing/maintaining the values of members and as such calls for a sustained effort.
The final dimension (direction) refers to the involvement/initiative of the individual, group, organisation or enterprise in the actual process of the activity. Intent here is strongly related to the resources an organisation or enterprise is prepared to/can devote to educational activity. Independent study by a person in a library is an example of self-managed learning. If the organisation intends that such activities be undertaken this is the far left side, if they detail what is to be learned, provide specific course materials and instructors that is the far right side. Once again the main thrust of the NRMA is to provide information/opportunities to learn but not 'manage' that learning
To sum up, the first task of the researcher engaged in the task of identifying other education is to determine if there is a clear 'intent' in the body or group they are examining. If they can find evidence to place a provider on all levels of the continuum then that in itself suggests the intention is clear. Intent may be evident in documented aims, mission, or goals, or inferred from reports of activities and practices and resource deployment if there are no stated aims. There may be no evidence of intent at one point in time but clear evidence at another. Where a body, such as the NRMA involves training of staff and of clients the designation on the continuum has to reflect the key thrust (in this case the clients), and it has to be remarked once again that fine detail is not the aim (and often cannot be because of the nebulous nature of the data). Nonetheless, it may be necessary to divide staff and client education into two separate analyses in the future.
Intent is just the first base, albeit an interesting study in itself. The multiple dimensions of intent are more a guarantee that the body/enterprise is worth studying as a 'provider' of other education and can be identified as part of that sector. The measure of what is actually happening is to look at practices and strategies. So, the next obvious question is how were intentions operationalised?
Course duration and intensity figure here too from a different perspective, not in the global way outlined in the continuum represented above, but in terms of the types of course, eg a particular industry may be committed to a mix of courses of different duration and intensity to meet its aims. For example, programmes may be developed that lead to a specific professional or trade qualification right through to assisting an individual to develop (or remediate) specific personal traits. Examples of the latter are instruction in public speaking, leadership, or decision making.
The authors have identified an enormous list of specific practices that span the period under study. They range in formality and structure and can be best utilised as a checklist. The decision was made to keep the classifications broad and simple. The practices of the NRMA were essentially picked up when discussing intention (as suggested previously intention in the 'other' sector is often sigified through practice rather than through statement of philosopy or formal syllabus). The brief history that precedes this analysis abounds with evidence of practices.
Practices can be divided into four types. Those connected with dissemination of printed and audio-visual information; those concerned with providing expert input, namely 'special visitors/lecturers', 'courses', and lastly, 'planned experiences'. The last category indicates how far the researchers have travelled, conceptually, from formal educational settings. The public relations aspect needs some elaboration. Some public relations activities have a clear intent to educate 'the public' in an information dissemination sense. The organisation's own personnel may also be the target of this activity in terms of explicating community relationships and partnerships, the history of the organisation, its value system and mission and so on. The NRMA used all the practices listed with the exception of correspondence courses.
| PRACTICES a) dissemination | ||
| i) journals | produced in house | social orientation technical orientation general education |
| produced externally | social orientation technical orientation general education | |
| ii) annual reports and newsletters | ||
| iii) audio-visual- | produced in-house external production | |
| iv) libraries | specialist general | |
| v) utilisation of public relations | ||
| b) special visitors/lecturers | ||
| i) visits | by company officers by external specialists to selected facilities | |
| ii) lectures- | commissioned public | |
| c) courses | ||
| i) face to face | internal external mix | |
| ii) correspondence | internal external | |
| d) personal and social development for personnel through planned experiences | ||
| i) selective placements | internal external special/projects | |
| ii) conferences | internal external | |
Figure 2
In the world of business, as in the world of educational administration, there is much said about what organisations are doing on the educational front, but a considerable amount of this is rhetoric. A crucial dimension of evidence about provision can be found in the strategies employed to facilitate program development and implementation. Ten strategic elements have been identified and lend themselves to a continuum approach and to comparison across different educational agencies. They are funding, responsibility for decision making, planning, flexibility, personnel support, locality, facilities and reliance on professional bodies.
| Strategies | Continuum |
|---|---|
|
self supporting---------------------------------not self supporting |
|
centralised----------------------------------------------autonomous |
|
structured---------------------------------------------------ad hoc |
|
high------------------------------------------------------------low |
|
fully subsidised-------------------------------------not subsidised |
|
on site----------------------------------------------------off site |
|
internal---------------------------------------------------external |
|
rich-----------------------------------------------------------poor |
|
high------------------------------------------------------------low |
Figure 3
At the heart of these is funding. At one extreme, educational activities can be self-supporting (even a source of profit), that is they are provided at no additional cost to the firm (eg, personnel pay for them). At the other extreme they are a cost-a drain on the resources of the firm that has to be budgeted for. In the NRMA's case the educational activities were not self supporting and most of those for members were seen as supplied in a mutual association. Such activity, however, ensured the growth and maintainance of membership and hence profitability.
Secondly who is responsible for the decision making? Is Head Office happy to send out a general memo and leave the details to be worked out at the regional or branch level? The latter suggests one type of autonomy. If an organisation is a single unit without branches or divisions then this category does not apply. Within the NRMA all decisions for 'Open Road' and decisions on services for members were centralised, but staff development was very much delegated to specific departments, thus on balance the weight of educational activity was controlled centrally.
Thirdly, how planned is the activity? Is there considerable structure that must apply or at the other extreme does the activity take place with little formal development, or at the extreme, in a totally ad hoc and unco-ordinated fashion? The type of activities the NRMA undertakes for the education of members are planned in a highly structured manner and well ahead. Staff development involves some degree of structure but at the departmental level there would appear (although hard evidence is not available) to be much in the way of ad hoc activity.
Flexibility is different again. In some organisations there may be a tendency to utilise the same infrastructure, personnel, procedures and the like and in others there may be culture of responding to new needs, dropping some elements and picking others up, changing position on credential requirements etc. The NRMA has a culture of co-operating and collaborating with other groups such as the technical colleges, police, YMCA, Chamber of Commerce, Rural Fire Services and the like. Courses for staff development have some elements of stability, e.g. the NRMA specific computer courses.
Are those engaged in the educational activities as learners to be supported in any way? Do they get any assistance in terms of release from work, time in lieu, financial subsidy? On balance the NRMA would appear to subsidise the bulk of educational activities it undertakes, including staff development.
Where does the activity take place. For example, does the activity go to the person (on-site), or do they travel elsewhere (off-site)? The former has been fairly consistently the case for the NRMA, although as staff training has gained in prominance in recent years there is a tendency for more of the activities to take place outside.
Who are the personnel involved as instructors? Sometimes internal volunteer labour is used, also that of the personnel manager and more recently Human Resource Development officers. The extent to which personnel are employees of the firm or called in from outside is the most simple and useful way to explicate this category. For the NRMA the emphasis is on internal personnel with a growth in use of 'external' specialists since the 1980s.
In many instances an occupational group may have its own professional, standard setting, body. That body may be set up to provide instruction, or regulate entry or promotion. It may provide instructors and off and on-site courses, training manuals and the like. A significant amount of the written information, e.g. in 'Open Road' used by the NRMA is written or vetted by the relevant professional group/individual and this has intendified since the 1960s as expertise becomes more specialised and standards more clearly articulated. With respect to staff development, given that credentialling is not one of the main thrusts of such activity such professional 'vetting' is not generally required or sought.
Finally, the organisation may be 'facility rich' with classrooms, libraries, computer terminals, it may also have no such facilities. NRMA educational activities have been well supported (increasingly so during the 1990s), but not in the sense of highly specialised and state of the art facilities.
The foregoing study of education within the NRMA 1920-1990 highlights two essentials with respect to the study of 'other' education. The first is the need to have a comprehensive knowledge of all facets of an organisation, not just tease out educational activities. Second, the need to assemble data over several decades. Education and training today do not occur in an historical vacuum. New training initiatives have to be considered within historical context. The NRMA, for example, has a culture of centralised education decision making, yet flexible strategies that embrace collaboration. The imbalance that existed so long between the emphasis on educating the community and staff is an intriguing one that can be understood partially in terms of the culture and structure of the organisation, and partly in terms of its history as an organisation with a unique and unchallenged position in an area that demanded rapid dissemination of information.
The NRMA is not a body that the average person would refer to when they used the word 'education', but its educational activities, are massive in scope albeit not driven by the theoretical and specialised knowledge of the education profession. The rapid expansion of the motoring industry from 1920, with its technical, driving, legal and insurance complexities, demanded an appreciable educational input to the motoring public. In addition, the NRMA supplied the means through which the community gained a wider knowledge of both Australia and other countries.
The NRMA throughout its existence has conducted wide ranging safety campaigns in both general and in specific terms. From the 1960s the organisation increased its emphasis on research (e.g. analysis of accident trouble spots and vehicle weaknesses) before exposing the outcomes both in educational campaigns and lobbying activities. For example, to ensure the protection of infant car passengers, the NRMA sponsored trial schemes that enabled parents to hire specially designed 'baby capsules' for the relatively short period that they were needed and was responsible for its adoption in 1986 by the Traffic Authority of New South Wales. The Association also worked with the Authority to form a network of 70 fitting stations throughout the state by July 1987. A broader approach to educate all children in road safety matters was commenced in 1985 when the NRMA sponsored Traffic Authority school safety material. The Association's efforts to make motoring safer was acknowledged by its winning the Federation Internationale de l'Automobile award for road safety in 1986.45
AAA Report.
AAA Federal Newsletter.
Automotive Technical Guide Vol. I and II,
Sydney, NRMA Road Services (1992) (1996).
Automotive Hints and Tips,
Sydney, NRMA Ltd, 1994
Barker, R.M.,
The Education and Training of Apprentices and Engineering Technicians in the Metal Trades in New South Wales 1947-1972: An Historical Study of Sectional Influence, Ph.D Thesis, The University of Newcastle, 1996
Beattie Report,
Report of the Inquiry into the Functioning of the Apprenticeship System in NSW, Sydney, Government Printer, 1968.
R Broomham, 'On the Road',
Sydney, Allen & Unwin, 1996.
Daily Mirror, 1950-1990.
Discussions
with Rod Cooke, Kevin Newell, Reg Kelly, Helen Ahern, Lana Sadler, March Williams, Graham Jackson
Driver Education Films. Bibliography of 41 Traffic Study materials.
Issued by Public Safety Department, California State Automobile Association, San Francisco, California, USA. Undated.
DRIVOTRAINER Digest 1960.
Education Gazette, 1950-1970.
A.P. Elkin,
History of the Diocese of Newcastle, Glebe, Australasian Medical Publishing Co, 1955.
The Forum of Education 1950-1970,
The Teachers College, University of Sydney.
Good Roads Magazine, 1923-1927.
Holbrook, Allyson & Barker, Ray,
'The Historical Investigation of other than format education:A comparative framework', Melbourne Studies in Education, Vol.39, No.1, May 1998, pp.81-104.
[1]
Holbrook, Allyson & Barker, Ray,
The Methodological Strategies involved in mapping 'other' education in one region of NSW, Australia, for the period 1900-1990. Paper presented ANZHESConference, Auckland, July 1998.
[2]
In Roads, journal from 1980
In the Know, Internal Newsletter
Reports on Needs in Technical and Further Education,
Vol. I, Melbourne, AGPS, 1974.
Kyle, N., 1998,
'Give us the franchise - - - we will show how we will use it', Royal Australian Historical Society Journal, vol. 84, no. 1, pp.56-67.
Malley, J.,
'Responding to Social and Economic Change', paper presented at CEET Conference, 31 August 1998
Report of the Committee on the Future of Tertiary Education in Australia,
Melbourne, AGPS, 1964.
Motor Tours in NSW,
Sydney, Simmons Ltd, n.d.
Motor Vehicle Drivers Instructors Act,
1961 (Act No. 60, 1961).
NRMA Annual Reports 1921-1990.
NRMA President's Reports, 1921-1990.
NRMA Times, internal newsletter
NRMA Training Course Directory 1989.
Personal Papers Hugh King - Road Safety - 4 boxes.
Box 1 - filmstrips and visual aids for driver;
Box 2 - Instruction course, material collected from various organisations and countries, particularly research findings from USA and UK;
Box 3 - submission to survey of NSW Secondary School 1956;
Box 4 - Submission to Senate Select Committees on Road Safety and associated correspondence 1959, plus reports by NRMA (1968), and Road Safety Council Western Australia 1957 and Mountain View, California - DRIVER Corp. 1960.
Public Safety,
journal published by Center for Safety Education, New York University.
Regulations to accompany the Motor Vehicle Drivers Instructors Act, 1962 - No. 149.
Report of the Committee appointed to Survey Secondary Education in New South Wales, Sydney, Government Printer, 1964.
Road Safety Journal,
official journal of the Road Safety Council of NSW, 1960-1970
Road Services Headquarters (RSH) Journal 1980.
Sydney Morning Herald, 1920-1990.
Medical Journal of Australia, Vol.II, No.9, 1958.
The Open Road 1927-1990.
The Society of Fellows,
The Australian Insurance Industry - 160 Years On and Looking Ahead, Melbourne, The Australian Insurance Institute, 1992.
The UNESCO Courier, 1960-70.
Published by the United Nations Education, Scientific & Cultural Organisation.
Tyrrell, Ian, Woman's World - Women's Empire,
Chapel Hill, The University of North Carolina Press, 1991, p.228.
Wickens, P.C., Insurance Institutes in Australia 1884-1984,
Melbourne, The Australian Insurance Institute, 1984.
[1] Allyson Holbrook and Ray Barker, The historical investigation of other than formal education: A comparative framework', Melbourne Studies in Education, vol. 39, no. 1, 1998, pp. 81-104.
[2] Allyson Holbrook and Ray Barker, 'The methodological strategies involved in mapping 'other' education in one region of NSW, Australia for the period 1900-1990', Paper presented at the ANZHES Conference, Auckland, July 1998.
[3] NRMA Annual Report 1987, p.1.
[4] A.P. Elkin, History of the Diocese of Newcastle, Glebe, Australasian Medical Publishing Co, 1955.
[5] Tyrrell, Ian, Woman's World - Women's Empire, Chapel Hill, The University of North Carolina Press, 1991, p. 228; Kyle, Noeline, 'Give us the franchise - - - we will show how we will use it', Royal Australian Historical Society Journal, vol. 84, no.1, pp.56-67.
[6] Clifford, Geraldine. J., The shifting relations between schools and non-school education: A historical account, in Mario D. Fantini and Robert L Sinclair (eds), Education in School and Nonschool Settings. Eighty-fourth Yearbook of the National Society For the Study of Education, Part I, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1985, pp. 6-7.
[7] Good Roads, July 15, 1925, p.45.
[8] Annual Report 1923, p.9.
[9] Annual Report, 1926.
[10] 'Motor Tours in NSW', Sydney, Simmons Ltd, no date, p.1.
[11] 'The Open Road', 25 October 1928, p.15.
[12] 'Good Roads', July 15, 1925, p.45.
[13] 'Good Roads' April 15, 1925.
[14] 'Good Roads', July 15, 1925, p.45.
[15] 'Good Roads', July 15, 1925, p.45.
[16] Annual Report 1928.
[17] Annual report 1929
[18] 'Good Roads', 15 February 1924, p.90.
[19] Annual Report 30 June 1927.
[20] Annual Report, 20 June 1926
[21] Annual Report 1929.
[22] Annual Report 1929.
[23] Open Road, March 1966, p.2.
[24] Open Road, 1 March 1966, p.1.
[25] Open Road, 1 February 1966, 1 April 1966, p.5, 1 March 1966.
[26] Personal Papers Hugh King (PPHK), Box 1, Several files about Survey of Secondary Schools
[27] PPHK, Box 1, Several files eg. Driver Education - Costs, results - University of North
[28] Report of the Committee Appointed to Survey Secondary Education in NSW, Sydney, government Printer, 1964, Appendix 1.
[29] Barker, R.M., The Education and Training of Apprentices and Engineering Technicians in the Metal Trades in New South Wales 1947-1972: An Historical Study of Sectional Influence, Ph.D Thesis, The University of Newcastle, 1996, Chapter 10.
[30] PPHK, Box 4, Several files, submission plus a verbatim account of questions and answers of witness
[31] Forum of education 1961, 1964, Education Gazette September 1958, pp. 338-9; Daily Mirror, 20 October 1962, p.52; Sydney Morning Herald, 13 May 1959. Open Road, 1 December 1956, p.5,1 November 1956.
[32] AAA Federal Newsletter, Vol.xii, No.4, 1961, pp.3-4.
[33] Huxtable, E.A., Driver Education in High Schools, a report prepared for AAA, October 1968.
[34] AAA Report, August 1969.
[35] Motor Vehicles Driver Instruction Act No.60, 1961, p.5.
[36] PPHK, Draft Letter to Minister Fife, undated c.March 1963.
[37] PPHK, File Driver Instruction Course.
[38] PPHK, letter Dunbar to Goodsell 3 June 1966, p.1, 66/S188/80652.
[39] Open Road, 1 August 1954 p.9.
[40] Open Road, 1 October 1965 p5.
[41] Open Road, 1 June 1966 pp.1,1 January 1965 p1.
[42] President's Report ,1986, p.8.
[43] Annual Report 1989.
[44] Annual Report 1990.
[45] AR 1982-87.