(CARTM97.232) School-based induction and mentoring of beginning

teachers

by M H Carter

Paper presented as part of the Symposium

(HOGAB97.229) Sustaining teachers' professional development: exploring

action learning and mentoring to maintain workplace learning

Australian Association for Research in Education Annual Conference

Brisbane, 1 December 1997

Abstract

Mentoring has become a key component of teacher induction programs in

Australia and overseas. This paper reviews the literature on mentoring

and teacher induction. The beginning teacher induction program in the

NSW Department of School Education, based on a workplace learning model

of teacher professional development, is the focus of detailed

discussion. The study reveals that school cultures and approaches to

teacher professional learning, contribute to variations in the

application of mentoring strategies and the implementation of

school-based induction programs. The paper provides a summary of key

issues in the implementation of mentoring and induction programs and

proposes areas for further study and evaluation research.

Mentoring and teacher professional learning: a review of the literature

Introduction

Continuous change places significant demands upon schools and the work

of teachers. Schools need to develop capacities to deal with these

changes. Mentoring is one strategy in workplace professional learning

that has the potential to respond to change in a constructive and

critical way, to initiate change and thus to contribute to school

development. In its most effective form it emerges from a culture of

collegiality and provides teachers with opportunities to reflect on

their work, question their practices and challenge the assumptions that

underpin schooling and approaches to education.

What is mentoring?

The term mentor historically denotes a trusted guide and counsellor,

and the mentor-protŽgŽ relationship a trusting and meaningful

association between two individuals with differing levels of experience

and knowledge in particular contexts.

The term mentor has been expanded over time from trusted guide and

counsellor to include:

teacher

coach

trainer

developer of talent

positive role model

protector

opener of doors

sponsor

leader. (Schein 1978)

There is a range of definitions of mentoring depending on the use to

which the learning strategy is being applied. Healy and Welchert (1990)

consider mentoring to be a dynamic, reciprocal relationship in a work

environment between an advanced career incumbent (mentor) and a

beginner (protŽgŽ) aimed at promoting the career development of both.

Mentors adopt roles that don't depend upon positional authority and

power. Bell (1996) suggests that good supervisors should also be

mentors but notes that good mentors need not be supervisors.

In the literature on mentoring and workplace learning the mentor is

less associated with teaching than with facilitating the learning of

another and creating a safe context for growth. Some writers have

suggested that mentoring programs should not attempt to specify rigidly

the mentoring roles. The imposition of external definitions and

conceptions of mentoring through formal training and development

programs may not be appropriate. (Wildman, Magliaro, Niles and Niles

1992)

Mentoring and learning

Mentoring relationships support the learning of teachers in the

workplace. Workplace learning opportunities arise from amongst, and

within, teachers themselves. Rarely does lasting professional learning

and change in practices arise from externally imposed expectations,

mandates or solely from training or inservice courses designed to

deliver educational 'innovation.'(Barth 1990) Instead the experiences

of teachers reflected in the recent literature on professional

development (see Holliday 1997), suggest that learning arises from the

condition of collegiality wherein:

teachers talk about practice. These conversations about teaching and

learning are frequent, continuous and focused.

teachers observe each other engaged in the practice of teaching and

administration. These observations are the focus for dialogue and

reflection.

teachers work together to plan, design, research and evaluate the

curriculum.

teachers teach each other what they know about teaching, learning and

leading. Craft knowledge is revealed, articulated and shared. (Little

cited in Barth 1990)

Effective mentoring programs and relationships are premised on the

belief that the learner controls, and is responsible for, his or her

own learning; and that meaning is constructed by the individual

learner. Furthermore the learner must possess the motivation to learn

and a capacity to learn. The mentor's role in the mentoring

relationship, is to establish and nurture the conditions for this

learning

Mentoring has been described as a state of mind rather than a

structured process; and in its most sophisticated form, mentoring

develops and sustains self directed learning in others by integrating

processes of reflection with the pursuit and construction of meaning.

(Brookfield 1985; Knowles 1990)

Mentoring as a workplace learning strategy

Mentoring as a workplace learning strategy can be viewed and understood

in terms of three domains of perspective transformation proposed by

Marsick and Watkins. (1990) These three domains are different types

and processes of learning.

Instrumental learning is job focused and is aimed at skill development

or improving individual productivity.

Dialogic learning includes learning about the organisation and one's

relationship to it.

Self-reflective learning seeks to extend one's understanding of oneself

in the workplace through confidence and competence, dealing with issues

of authority and changes in personal values or beliefs and one's

orientation toward the job. In its most complete form self-reflective

learning involves 'an internal change in consciousness that leads to an

appreciation of the contextuality of knowledge and an awareness of the

culturally constructed form of value frameworks, belief systems and

moral codes that influence behaviour and the creation of social

structures.' (Brookfield 1985)

Mentoring and teachers' professional learning

Teacher professional learning arises from the interaction of

theoretical knowledge and the knowledge constructed from practice and

experience. The place of mentoring in this process has become

increasingly fashionable in recent years. (Gray and Gray 1985; Healy

and Welchert 1990; McIntyre, Hagger and Wilkin 1993; Yeomans and

Sampson 1994; Bey 1995; Furlong and Maynard 1995; Hagger, Burn and

McIntyre 1995; King and Bey 1995) Its prominence is due to a growth in

an understanding of how beginning teachers learn about teaching and

'become' teachers and is a recognition of the place practitioners'

knowledge in the development of teaching as a profession. The

emergence of mentoring is perhaps also a response to policies of

economic rationalism affecting education and may be part of a broader

ideological trend in approaches to the work of teachers and teacher

education. (Frost 1993) It's attraction in terms of system policy lies

in its potential to be a cost 'solution' to teacher training and

development.

The literature on mentoring covers all three domains of workplace

learning identified by Marsick and Watkins (1990). With regard to

inexperienced teachers the strategy of mentoring addresses the issue of

skill development and needs arising during the survival stage of

induction (instrumental learning). (Tonnsen 1992; Clement 1995; Gasner

1996; Janas 1996)

Mentoring is also described in terms of professional relationships that

mitigate teacher isolation, promote the concept of an educative

workplace and lead to the creation or understanding of consensual norms

in a school faculty or grade team (dialogic learning). (Little 1985;

Costa and Kallick 1993; McCann and Radford 1993; Yeomans and Sampson

1994; Ballantyne, Hansford and Packer 1995)

Mentoring, as a process of professional learning also has the potential

to go beyond the instrumental and dialogic dimensions and incorporate

self-reflective learning. (Tickle 1994; Mitchell 1996) Marsick and

Watkins (1990) describe this as encountering and delving into the

organisational norms and self perceptions which influence the way in

which people perceive, question, probe, evaluate, interpret and judge

their experiences. Frost (1993) argues that critical discourse is an

essential element of teacher learning and that mentors have a

significant role in rendering problematic the taken-for-granted

assumptions and explanations of beginning teachers. Similarly

mentoring has been linked to the facilitation of professional growth of

teachers. Mentors need to be able to recognise that professional

growth of these teachers is complex and multi-dimensional (Gasner 1996)

and that this growth is related to the images of teaching that teachers

bring to their work. (Elliot and Calderhead 1993)

The role of mentors in the process of learning to teach is significant

since it is through these colleagues that inexperienced teachers learn

to "see" and "frame" teaching experience. (Furlong and Maynard 1995)

Learning to teach involves the development of a body of practical

professional knowledge which subsequently informs professional practice

described by Schon as reflection-in-action and reflection-on-action.

Furlong and Maynard argue that mentors' roles are to:

help teachers develop an appropriate body of practical professional

knowledge (experiences and concepts) with which to frame teaching

situations

encourage teachers to develop deeper and more complex understandings of

the assumptions they are making in that practical professional

knowledge. (Furlong and Maynard 1995 p 180)

Mentoring practices in the NSW DSE training and development programs

Mentoring is a key component of a number of programs conducted by the

Training and Development Directorate of the NSW Department of School

Education (NSW DSE). During 1997 a review of mentoring practices in

the beginning teacher induction program and in the Directorate's

retraining programs was conducted in order to inform future directorate

approaches to training and workplace learning. The paper focuses on

mentoring as a workplace learning strategy in the beginning teacher

induction program but also makes reference to findings from the review

of mentoring strategies in retraining programs.

Outline of the study of retraining programs

Several mentors and mentorees from each of the Directorate's retraining

programs were interviewed about their experiences of, and perspectives

on mentoring as a professional learning strategy. The NSW DSE

retraining programs are designed to meet shortfalls in recruitment to

specialist teaching areas. Teachers with demonstrated classroom

expertise are invited to apply for entry into retraining programs. The

use of mentoring in retraining is designed to provide support and

professional guidance to retrainees during their initial periods of

workplace learning.

A study of mentoring in the NSW DSE beginning teacher induction program

The Training and Development Directorate's beginning teacher induction

program is school-based and is founded upon the concept of workplace

learning. The program provides a framework for orientation to teaching

practice in public education, orientation to work in each school as

well as induction into the teaching profession generally.

It is based on the following principles of workplace learning:

Workplace learning is a major element of beginning teachers'

professional learning and growth.

Professional learning involves some form of change in relation to the

work and professional understandings of individuals teachers and groups

of teachers.

Teachers' professional dialogue and collaboration in the workplace have

the potential to enhance teachers' understandings related to their

work, to promote reflective practice and to strengthen collegial

approaches to school improvement.

Teacher professional learning is a foundation for school development

and improvements in student learning outcomes and improvements in the

status of the profession.

The roles of mentor and supervisor are critical to each school's

program of professional learning for beginning teachers. Consistent

with findings from research and perspectives presented in the

literature on induction and mentoring, the directorate's induction

program identified best practice as involving the separation of the

roles of mentor and supervisor.

Methodology

During the course of 1997 induction and mentoring practices were the

focus of study in four NSW Government schools. These case studies

complemented a review of mentoring practices in the directorate's

retraining programs. Rather than examine specifically the

implementation of the directorate's model of induction, the four case

studies focused on induction processes and practices adopted in each

school with a particular emphasis on mentoring. The cases taken

together take on the characteristics of a collective case study wherein

each school is treated as an instrumental case study (Stake 1994).

Merriam (1988) and Yin ][, 1994 #170 describe this as a multiple case

study design. Each case plays a supportive role facilitating a deeper

understanding of induction practices.

Each school was visited on three separate occasions during the year.

Data were collected through semi-structured interviews with mentors,

supervisors, principals and beginning teachers in each of the four

schools.

Those interviewed included:

15 beginning teachers in permanent positions

5 beginning teachers in long term casual positions

9 supervisors

5 mentors

2 principals

Schedules of questions were prepared for each of the three interview

phases. Interview schedules were varied for the mentor supervisor

group and beginning teacher group. Interviews with principals were

loosely structured.

Some interviews were transcribed from cassette tape recordings while

the remainder were written up from notes taken by the interviewer

during each interview. Following each school visit the relevant

transcript of interview was forwarded to each teacher for comment and

verification.

Issues that emerged in the course of data collection were explored in

subsequent interviews. Validity of findings was enhanced through

triangulation. Perspectives and observations of different teachers

were checked for consistency against each and the perspectives and

understandings of teachers, together with the issues emerging from the

data were revisited through the three interview phases.

Selection of case study schools

One high school is located in western Sydney, while two are in rural

locations. One of these schools is located in western NSW. The fourth

school is a primary school in western Sydney. The schools were chosen

because they shared many of the characteristics of schools to which

beginning teachers are appointed; and each school had at least four

beginning teachers some of whom were beginning casual teachers.

Furthermore the four case study schools had experience in the provision

of some form of structured induction for beginning teachers and each

school expressed an interest in participating in the study and each

principal was willing to opening the school to observation by

"outsiders." These last two characteristics may disqualify the schools

as being "representative" of schools to which beginning teachers are

appointed. The four schools were each provided with 15 relief days - 10

days to support induction and mentoring initiatives and 5 days to

facilitate data collection.

Induction and mentoring practices at Hallmark HS

Hallmark HS in western Sydney was established in the early eighties.

In its early years it received many beginning teachers, however during

the late 1980s and early 1990s student numbers had fallen and the staff

had remained fairly stable. Most of the school executive and many of

the classroom teachers had been at the school for a decade or more.

Changes in the local community profile and a shift in the community's

perception of the school over the previous two to three years meant

that the school had started to expand again. At the commencement of

1997 four beginning teachers were appointed to the school. The senior

executive of the school had planned to focus on professional

development for head teachers during 1997. The induction program for

beginning teachers and specifically, the mentoring process, served

several purposes. It addressed the needs of beginning teachers, it

provided a vehicle for executive professional development and it

provided an opportunity to approach professional development through

workplace learning. The leading teacher coordinated the induction

program.

In this school there was no attempt to identify and allocate mentors in

addition to formal supervisors. By design supervisors were expected to

fulfil both roles. The issues of induction, supervision and mentoring

were addressed in some detail at an executive meeting early in the

year.

Through interviews supervisors indicated an appreciation of the

differing roles of mentor and supervisor. There was an emphasis on the

support dimension of the mentoring role in the explanations of their

work with beginning teachers. In some cases support took the form of

reaction to, rather than anticipation of the needs of the beginning

teachers.

Generally the beginning teachers were appreciative of their

supervisors' efforts in providing support and guidance. However, when

asked to identify a mentor several of the beginning teachers indicated

that they sought support and advice from people other than their

supervisors. In each case proximity to the beginning teacher or gender

were factors that determined who became a mentor. Despite the best

efforts and intentions of supervisors, there were times when beginning

teachers felt more comfortable in discussing issues or problems with,

and seeking guidance from other colleagues. In this school and others

in the study, young female beginning teachers sometimes sought support

and advice from more experienced female colleagues. Another feature of

professional relationships experienced by beginning teachers was a

pervasive professional collegiality, particularly within faculties.

Beginning teachers reported strong and consistent informal support from

colleagues throughout the year.

Induction and mentoring practices at Titania HS

Titania High School is a small rural high school with a staff of 25.

It serves a working class rural community. Relations between the

school and sections of the community are sometimes strained. Titania

High School is not regarded as an easy place to start teaching. At the

beginning of 1997 four beginning teachers were appointed to the school.

The deputy principal took responsibility for the induction of these

teachers and took on the role of mentor. There was a conscious decision

on the part of the principal and deputy principal to assign the role of

mentor to a person other than a head teacher. At Titania HS the

supervisors were not expected to take on the formal mentoring role.

Although the deputy principal had a significant role in the assessment

process at the end of term 3, day to day supervision of the beginning

teachers was left to head teachers.

Initial experiences in appointment were not always favourable.

Problems with finding accommodation prior to the commencement of the

school year coloured the teachers' first impressions. The beginning

teachers found the Teacher Housing Authority (THA) was of little

assistance. In anticipation of these difficulties and as part of the

induction strategy the principal and deputy principal made every effort

to make personal contact, provide assistance and establish a rapport

with the beginning teachers before the start of the school year.

Although not identified and referred to as mentor, the deputy filled

the important role of personal contact and support for the beginning

teachers during their first days and weeks in the school.

During the first two terms a series of beginning teacher meetings was

conducted by the deputy principal at which professional issues and

concerns of the beginning teachers were discussed. The deputy also

provided much needed support and guidance for three of the beginning

teachers who worked without direct supervision from a subject head

teacher. The schedule of induction meetings was disrupted by events

and minor crises that took up the time of the deputy. Nevertheless,

when asked to identify their primary source of support early in the

year the beginning teachers indicated that they frequently referred to

the deputy principal for guidance, advice and assistance and they

valued his support and availability in times of need.

As with Hallmark HS a culture of collegiality provided a supportive

environment for the beginning teachers. However the size of the school

meant that collegial support in specific teaching areas was not

available to beginning teachers. Consequently beginning teachers drew

on their networks from teacher training and, with assistance from the

deputy, on the professional experience of teachers in other schools in

the district.

During the course of the year two of the beginning teachers developed

professional relationships with others on the staff and these

colleagues started to fulfil the role of mentor. During term 3 the

deputy, in his capacity as formal mentor, stopped scheduling beginning

teacher meetings and implemented an action learning program. (Revans

1983; McGill and Beaty 1995) It also required a significant shift in

his role as mentor. The action learning program involved the mentor

facilitating a process of reflection on problems encountered in the

course of normal work, and the team of beginning teachers planning

solutions . It was a process of professional learning through

collaborative problem analysis and problem solving.

The beginning teachers and their formal mentor reported significant

satisfaction with the fresh approach to the induction program.

Preliminary findings from this case study suggest that the action

learning process complements the use of mentoring in beginning teacher

induction programs by providing opportunities for reflection and

professional collaboration following initial induction and orientation.

The emergence of this process of peer support has parallels with

latter stages of the mentoring continuum wherein the relationship moves

from of dependence to independence, the mentor becomes critical friend

and the primary responsibility for professional learning is transferred

to the mentoree. (Gray and Gray 1985)

Induction and mentoring practices at Bogan HS

Bogan High School is situated in western NSW. It is a small high

school, similar in size to Titania HS and services a similar community.

Its distinguishing feature is its remoteness from metropolitan areas

and larger provincial centres. Seven beginning teachers and two of the

four head teachers had commenced work at the school since October 1996.

One of the head teachers, with beginning teachers in the faculty, had

started at the commencement of term 2 1997.

The school had considerable experience in the induction of beginning

teachers. In previous years it has hosted an induction program for all

beginning teachers appointed to schools in the district. The staff of

25 also included teachers and executive staff with extensive experience

in small rural communities. In this sense the school was well placed

to provide induction support for beginning teachers.

The principal actively pursued the early appointment of teachers to

vacant positions in the school at the end of 1996 and during the

vacation period. He was available as initial contact for new

appointees throughout the vacation period and he invited all the newly

appointed staff, beginning teachers and executive, to a program of

induction and orientation to the school held at the end of the last

week of the vacation. Those teachers who participated in this

orientation program valued the opportunity to learn about the school

and the community, to meet colleagues and to become familiar with their

work environment prior to the start of the school year. However this

component of the induction program was problematic because the terms of

employment and salary don't commence until the start of the school

year.

At Bogan High School the supervisors also fulfilled the role of mentors

to beginning teachers. In most instances there were insufficient

experienced classroom teachers in faculty areas to serve as formal

mentors. The support and mentoring that was provided, extended well

beyond the school and classrooms. Supervisors inducted beginning

teachers into the community as well as the school. This aspect of

working as a teacher in a small rural community was an underlying and

often informal, but significant component of the school's induction

program. One beginning teacher commented:

The first week we were up here we ate at home only twice - you are out

and about. Its a good social atmosphere. Interview with Phillip

18/4/97

Most of the professional relationships are friendly. We try to

organise a couple of social events and arrange for all the staff to

come. People go out of their way to make new teachers welcome. When

their parents come to visit we include them in any functions and invite

them out to properties for a look at what it is like living out of

town. Interview with Mary 30/4/97

Supervisors provided ongoing support and guidance to the beginning

teachers. Where opportunities arose for beginning teachers who worked

alone in subject areas, to visit other schools and attend professional

development programs, teachers were encouraged to take up these

opportunities.

The provision of professional support and guidance envisaged in the

role of formal mentor was problematic where teachers worked alone in

specialist subject areas or where the position of head teacher was

vacant. The principal and others had anticipated professional needs of

beginning teachers arising from such circumstances and the existence of

a strong culture of collegiality within the school, that had been

developed over a number of years, was critical to an overarching

strategy of induction support operating in the school. Beginning

teachers at Bogan HS overcame potential professional isolation by

receiving and, over time, actively seeking, the support and assistance

of colleagues regardless of these colleagues' position or work in the

school. When beginning teachers were asked to identify their primary

source of professional support many commented that this support came

from many individuals at different times.

I've had heaps of support. All the staff have been fantastic in terms

of helping me get to know the kids and information about what is

happening in the school and getting into the community - the social

thing. Interview with Phillip 18/4/97.

Induction and mentoring practices at Meadows Primary School

Meadows Primary School in western Sydney is a large primary school with

more that 30 teachers and 600 children. The school receives a

Disadvantaged Schools Component (DSC) in its budget allocation. Many

young children enter the school with English as a second language.

Beginning teachers are frequently appointed to the school. The

principal wryly noted that the school had a long tradition of providing

high quality professional classroom teachers for schools in the more

affluent areas of Sydney. Within this comment there was an

acknowledgement of the effectiveness of induction practices in

operation at the school.

The school's induction program for beginning teachers comprised three

elements:

support and guidance from supervisors

support from an induction program coordinator

support and guidance from a formal mentor and the grade team.

As at other schools beginning teachers reported a collegial approach to

professional development and support. The guidance of supervisors and

mentors was provided in the context of a supportive school culture.

The professional assistance that grade teams provided to beginning

teachers was a manifestation of this professional culture. The

principal referred to this culture in the following way:

One of the key aspects of induction is to immerse the teacher in the

ethos of the school - how we think about things. People are ruined by

being told how to do things. We want beginning teachers to think about

how they may do things.. they may do things in different ways but they

have a commitment to the same ethos.

Interview with principal 31/5/97

Beginning teachers at Meadows PS were able to identify a formal mentor

and they attributed their successes in their first year to the strong

and continuous support provided by these colleagues. The mentors had

been identified by the principal on the basis of teaching expertise,

closeness in age to the beginning teachers and the alignment of their

approaches to teaching with the ethos of professional collegiality that

operated in the school. The principal described the mentors as

"crackerjack teachers" who could empathise with their beginning teacher

colleagues and who were committed to a whole school approach to

education of young children. The principal commented:

Beginning teachers respond to a non-threatening role model who has

recent experience in the situation of beginning teaching. Mentors need

to model good things teachers do in schools - not just in the

classroom. They are generally quite humble in their work... and they

are those who beginning teachers can approach and ask what they (the

beginning teacher) might feel is "a stupid question". Interview with

principal 31/5/97

The beginning teachers comments about their mentors echoed the views of

the principal and frequently use the terms "openness", "honesty",

"caring", "approachable" when talking about their mentors.

The use of mentors in the beginning teacher induction program at

Meadows PS complemented the school's DSC supported program of collegial

professional development. All teachers were encouraged to observe each

other's classes and to team teach. Additional release time could be

booked each week for these pruposes. Mentors and their beginning

teachers used release time available to them to team teach and to

develop teaching programs together.

Teachers involved in the induction program had well developed

understandings of the role of workplace learning in teachers'

professional development. They had an expansive view of the work of

teachers and they valued the school as a place of learning for all, not

just the children.

You can't manufacture good teachers through external imposition. It

comes from within the individual - the learning, the understanding and

the desire to contribute. The way to stop the development of good

teachers in the induction phase is to give them an environment that

doesn't value learning. Interview with principal 31/5/97

Discussion

Induction and mentoring practices in the four schools varied according

to local conditions, different approaches to professional learning on

the part of individuals and key personnel in each school, and differing

conceptions of the roles of supervisor and mentor.

Central to the success of mentoring relationships were the personal

compatibility of mentor and beginning teacher as well as individuals'

conceptions of what constituted professional learning. In terms of the

school as an organisation critical factors in effective induction and

mentoring practices were the existence of a well developed culture of

professional collegiality and collaborative endeavour, and an ethos of

learning that incorporated and valued the concept of workplace

learning.

An ethos of learning

In a sense, small schools generated an ethos of learning by default.

Beginning teachers and their more experienced colleagues recognised the

opportunities for learning and the development of skills that arose

from the challenges of work in small schools where there were fewer

people doing the same number of jobs as in larger schools.

Consequently some beginning teachers found themselves cast in the roles

of sports organiser, student adviser, and part-time school counsellor.

Beginning teachers in larger schools also found themselves with

significant leadership responsibilities and unanticipated professional

challenges. Two beginning teachers, because of their recent training,

became key personnel in computer education in their respective schools.

One principal commented:

A lot of teachers who come here are promoted after five years. There

is no time to baby them here. Leadership comes from all levels - its

expected. At this school we try to establish a hierarchy of

responsibilities rather than a hierarchy of power. Interview with

principal 31/5/97

Mentors and learning

The most effective learning for beginning teachers who had

responsibility for whole school projects, was mediated by mentors.

This process of mediation and facilitation had implications for the

beginning teachers' longer term perspectives on a teaching career. Of

the nineteen beginning teachers in the four case study schools those

few who were contemplating a change in career were those who faced

significant challenges in their work and whole school responsibilities,

without the sustained support of a mentor or supervisor.

Where mentoring was a significant component of induction programs, time

was allocated to the task, either in the form of release from classroom

teaching duties or in the commitment of personal time.

The essential ingredient is time. I frequently hear teachers [involved

in mentoring relationships] talking long after school about their work.

Interview with principal 31/5/97

Personality and mentoring relationships

In the strongest mentoring relationships there developed a sense of

mutual respect and friendship. Both mentor and beginning teacher

exhibited strong positive interpersonal skills that reflected or

generated personal compatibility and commitment.

It is the personal enthusiasm that you pass across in mentoring

relationships. CDROMs and kits can't do that. Mentors have to bring

the sense of genuine enthusiasm for the profession. Interview with

principal 31/5/97

Findings from the study of induction programs support findings reported

by Turner (1995) which indicated that the personality of the mentor was

highly significant to the induction experiences of beginning teachers.

new teachers who had problems and who achieved a low level of success

in their probationary year often had ineffective support teachers or an

unproductive relationship with them. (Turner 1995 p. 153)

While many mentoring relationships may commence in the expert novice

mode, effective mentoring relationships become shared learning

experiences. At its most effective, the mentoring relationship is a

learning partnership. It involves collaboration and the opportunity for

challenge and ongoing reflection on practice on the part of the mentor

and the person being mentored.

The nature of mentoring relationships is a function of the purpose and

context of each relationship. As indicated mentoring has a range of

applications and means different things to different people. In the

context of the workplace it can be associated with learning new work

skills, role changes, career advancement and induction to workplaces,

work cultures and professions.

Supervision and mentoring

Mentoring relationships were strongest where there was separation of

mentoring and supervision roles. A number of supervisors successfully

combined the two roles and had the trust of their beginning teachers

but these relationships often existed in combination with informal

mentoring relationships initiated by beginning teachers themselves, and

within strong cultures of professional collegiality.

Beginning teachers valued the openness of relationships with their

mentors. For beginning teachers mentors became important sources of

professional and personal support. By term 3 one beginning teacher

described her relationship with her mentor in terms of friendship.

Working with Michelle (mentor) has been great. If she hadn't been here

it wouldn't have been as good. Interview with beginning teacher

23/9/97.

Another female beginning teacher said of her two female mentors:

I can talk to them about anything ... they are really easy to approach.

They are just so kind and that seems to be what draws me to them.

While mentorees valued the support of their supervisors there tended to

be a reservation in these relationships that was not present in

relationships with mentors. Of her male supervisor:

Mitchell has been very supportive - really good in helping me with

selection of resources. Although Mitchell is a really good supervisor

I don't think I would go to him for more personal advice. Interview

with Linda 6/5/97

The same reservation was apparent in a male beginning teacher's

relationship with his female supervisor. On occasions he sought the

advice and guidance through the more informal relationship with his

male mentor.

Supervisors indicated that their management responsibilities and

demands of their roles, affected the amount of time they were able to

devote to work with beginning teachers. For supervisors this was of

greater significance in their work with beginning teachers than the

tension between the roles of supervision and support. However several

supervisors also acknowledged that sometimes their supervisory role

appeared to constrain relationships with beginning teachers. Some

supervisors suggested that gender matches in pairings with beginning

teachers might contribute to more open professional relationships.

School culture, induction and mentoring

Cultures of professional collegiality and collaborative endeavour

underpinned effective induction and mentoring practices in the case

study schools. In their most effective form induction programs and

mentoring strategies were an outgrowth of these cultures of

collegiality rather than self-contained programs existing separate from

other programs in each school. Mentoring played a major role in the

professional socialisation of beginning teachers. The most sensitive

approaches to this aspect of professional learning were from mentors

who were conscious of the prevailing school culture and who were

prepared to question and analyse this culture in the course of their

work.

Issues in mentoring and induction practice emerging from the literature

and case studies

Characteristics of effective mentoring relationships

Experience and research support the assertion that the process of

learning cannot be imposed upon an individual. Coercion and power

relationships are not foundations for learning or the work of mentors.

Perspectives on the way adults learn have implications for the

identification and preparation of mentors, for the application of

mentoring strategies in professional development programs, and for the

way mentoring relationships are managed and conducted.

Mentors and mentorees valued mentoring relationships where both parties

exhibited strong and effective interpersonal skills and where the

mentor had the capacity to empathise with the mentoree. Mentoring

relationships failed or appeared not to flourish where there was a lack

of personal compatibility between the mentor and mentoree and where the

relationship generated inconvenience for one or both parties. Distance

between mentor and mentoree often caused this sense of inconvenience.

Mentoring across schools was sometimes problematic. The tension that

arose in these situations highlighted the significance of culture in

teachers' perceptions of their roles and in their practice. There were

differences in understanding about the roles and responsibilities of

mentors when it came to negotiating with another school's principal on

behalf of mentorees. The complexities of power relationships,

hierarchies and status in the profession combined with their commitment

to the professional welfare and well-being of mentorees caused

political and ethical tension for some mentors in carrying out their

roles.

From the review of mentoring in a number of directorate retraining

programs there appeared to be broad agreement about the kinds of

interpersonal skills required of mentors. Most mentors adhered to

Gray's model (1985) which saw an evolving dynamic in which the mentoree

grew to be a peer.

The more sophisticated mentoring relationships involved mentors

providing a frame of reference for mentorees' thinking about their work

as well as providing support and guidance in technical matters - akin

to Marsick and Watkins "instrumental learning". (Marsick and Watkins

1990) In one instance a mentor not only provided direct support in

matters of student discipline and control, but also addressed the

broader issue of the way relationships operated in schools and had

implications for approaches to education and the work of teachers. He

was challenging the mentoree, in this case a beginning teacher, to

question some of the assumptions that underpin colleagues' practice.

I think their (beginning teachers' relationships with students are

terribly important. If they don't get that right then they face 30

years of frustration. Interview with mentor 1/5/97

One beginning teacher observed that the mentor's approach to student

discipline didn't appear to conform to that of others in the school.

So I talked about that and I gave a little history of how teacher

student interactions used to be conducted. That there was mutual fear

and loathing. Once I gave them that perspective I said that it was

still possible to be calm and collected in matters of student

discipline. Interview with mentor 1/5/97

A mentoring relationship involving role modelling that might have

remained at the level of instrumental learning, shifted to the domains

of dialogic and self-reflective learning.

Identification of mentors - by mentorees

Many effective mentoring relationships arise from professional

interactions related to the workplace. In these situations a mentor is

identified by the mentoree and the mentoring relationship may then

become incorporated within, and supported through, a formal

professional development program. This practice is adopted in several

directorate programs. Experienced teachers involved in retraining

programs are required to have mentors who provide support and guidance

during the course of the retraining. These mentors may be identified

by, and known to, the teacher undertaking the retraining. The

involvement of these mentors is dependent upon their agreement to be

involved and upon the approval of program coordinators and principals.

In school based induction programs beginning teachers often had

official and unofficial mentors. As their knowledge of the school

increased they identified effective and empathic practitioners who

worked close by and sought support and guidance from them. Astute

school leaders were watchful of these emerging relationships and in

some instances encouraged and nurtured these mentoring relationships.

However as these school leaders were quick to point out, not all

mentoree initiated relationships resulted in the desired professional

learning.

Advantages of identification of mentors by mentorees

There is likely to be compatibility between both people.

The issues of power and control are less likely to affect the

relationship.

The quality of the relationship may facilitate learning and result in

the development of real partnerships in professional learning.

Disadvantages

There may be no alignment between the practice and perspectives of

mentors and the development program in which the protŽgŽ is engaged.

As a consequence the mentoring relationship may reinforce or transmit

orientations to practice that are inconsistent with the goals of the

development program goals.

The professional learning of both mentor and protŽgŽ may be restricted

to existing frames of reference and the capacity for critical

reflection may not be developed.

The status quo in practice may be reinforced and cultural norms may go

unquestioned.

Identification of mentors - for mentorees

In some contexts it may be appropriate to identify mentors on behalf of

mentorees and to link mentors and mentorees based on what are perceived

to be the mentorees' professional learning needs and other

contingencies. This may be because the mentoree does not know of any

suitable mentor with the requisite knowledge and expertise.

Mentors are important in the process of professional socialisation of

beginning teachers and retrainees. The identification and selection of

mentors for mentorees may assist in the alignment of mentors'

perspectives and approaches to professional learning with school or

program values and goals.

Furthermore mentors may be identified prior to the arrival of newly

appointed staff in order to facilitate the process of orientation.

Advantages of the identification of mentors for mentorees

There is likely to be a closer alignment of the professional values

espoused in the training and development program and those held by the

mentor.

Program coordinators can have confidence that the mentors have the

requisite knowledge and skills to support the learning of mentorees.

Induction programs facilitated by mentors can commence immediately upon

the appointment of a teacher to the school.

The newly appointed teacher has immediate access to a support person

during the critical first days.

Disadvantages

There may be mismatches between mentors and mentorees and the required

trust and openness in communication may not develop.

The mentoree may establish alternative informal mentoring relationships

with colleagues in response to mismatches.

The mentoree may associate the mentor relationship with concepts of

hierarchy and control.

As a consequence the relationship may remain procedural and superficial

rather than develop the collegial and critically reflective dimensions

of learning partnerships.

Mentor and appraiser: separation of roles?

Separation of the roles of mentor and appraiser is regarded as the

preferred approach throughout the literature on mentoring and

professional learning. The findings from this study support this view.

Where the appraiser is involved in summative assessment of competence,

the mentor provides support for the mentoree. Conditions of trust and

openness in professional dialogue require the tension created by

appraisal to be removed from the relationship.

I conduct the assessment process in the school. I deliberately keep

away from the mentors. I don't want mentoring to be associated with

the process of assessment. In my view it would inhibit the level of

disclosure in the mentoring relationship. Interview with principal

22/9/97

Following a review of the literature the Australian Teaching Council

adopted the same position in a paper commissioned in 1995. It stated

that:

The potential developmental role of the mentor is seen as too important

to be connected with any involvement in assessment. (Bella 1995)

The report into teacher induction conducted by the NSW Department of

School Education in 1991 came to a similar conclusion. The report

recommended that mentoring and appraisal of beginning teachers should

not be combined and that triads of beginning teachers, mentors and

supervisors be used. (NSW Department of School Education 1991)

However the circumstances in many schools often prevent complete

separation of roles. Martinez (cited in Bella 1995) argues that:

the challenge is to structure a system that genuinely accommodates the

dual roles of support and appraisal. Practically, I do not believe we

can avoid this complex issue as we simply do not have the personnel or

resources to run parallel networks.

In smaller schools and those with high staff turnover, including

executive staff, the number of colleagues that have sufficient

experience, levels of competence and who teach the same grade or

subject is often insufficient to allow the separation of roles of

appraiser and mentor. The problem is compounded by the fact that it is

schools with high staff turnover and inexperienced executive staff,

that are likely to have the largest numbers of beginning teacher

appointments.

Evidence from the case study research suggests that the effectiveness

of mentoring relationships emerges from the personality, sensitivities

and expertise of mentors. Supervisors who demonstrate flexibility,

empathy and sensitivity to the needs of beginning teachers can

successfully adopt the roles of both mentor and appraiser.

Where separation of roles did occur spontaneously despite the

supervisor nominally adopting both roles, gender appears to have been a

significant factor. Several female beginning teachers who had male

supervisors indicated that they often turned to support and guidance

from other females on the staff. Sometimes these female mentors were

executive staff from other parts of the school.

My head teacher is supportive - he tries but he doesn't know much about

my subject area. You try to deal with someone who thinks the same way

you do. I also go to one of the other head teachers. She provides

advice and I guess she is a source of female support. Interview with

Kylie 31/7/ 97

My mentor could be a few people. Both Cathy and Mary would be my

mentors. Although Nick is a really good supervisor I don't think I

would go to him for sort of more personal advice. Interview with Linda

6/5/97

In one instance of a male beginning teacher indicated that although he

considered his female supervisor as mentor too, he sometimes felt more

comfortable with a male colleague as mentor.

If its a question related to my inexperience Susan (supervisor) is not

domineering. She is encouraging and will give advice in teaching. She

is open. Both Susan and Bill (mentor) are my mentors - I have good

friendships with both. Sometimes I might go to Bill in preference to

Susan. Sometimes gender is a factor.

Interview with Daniel 18/4/97

Assessment has at least two dimensions - formative and summative. It

could be argued that mentors are engaged in the process of formative

assessment and thus are appraisers since they provide feedback to

mentorees and make judgements about mentorees' work and professional

needs. Feedback on and judgement of performance are intrinsic aspects

of the work of good mentors. What is contested is the part these

mentoring roles play in the formal processes of assessment.

The issue of appraisal emerges where mentors are used in retraining

programs. In these programs mentoring is used as strategy in the

retraining of experienced teachers to fill specialist positions such

as teacher librarians, technological and applied studies teachers,

languages other than English (LOTE) teachers, careers advisers and

English as a second language (ESL) teachers. Mentors are involved in

the assessment and the provision of ongoing support for teachers

undergoing retraining.

These mentors engage in a training program provided by the Training and

Development Directorate, that endeavours to address the dual roles of

appraisal and support. These dual roles of mentors have evolved over a

number of years. Initially the relationship between mentor and

retraining teacher in the ESL retraining program was based on a formal

model of supervision and assessment. However the emphasis has shifted

from supervision and external appraisal to one of collegial support,

collegial appraisal and self evaluation.

The current approach to mentoring in the ESL retraining program that

integrates roles of support and appraisal, is based on a more

sophisticated conceptualisation of professionalism in teaching. In

programs such as this, where the mentoree is an experienced teacher,

self appraisal and peer appraisal are key approaches to assessment.

The emphasis is upon development of knowledge and competence rather

than the determination of fitness to practice.

Self appraisal and peer appraisal are strategies in reflective

practice. In retraining programs mentors have a critical role in

promoting mentorees' reflective practice through collaboration. The

mentor facilitates process of self reflection and the development of

new understandings and solutions to problematic situations. In this

way the both the mentor and mentoree are engaged in the process of

developing professional understanding and knowledge rather than the

more restricted process of transmission of knowledge from expert to

novice.

Mentoring practice: Are there advantages for mentors?

In the literature it is widely reported that the process of mentoring

has considerable advantages for mentors themselves. While some of

these advantages appear to be qualified as assertions rather than clear

findings from research, several studies have examined this issue.

(Turner 1995 p. 152; Gasner 1996; Mitchell, Murray and Dobbins 1997)

One benefit of mentoring reported in the literature is that of the

reinvigoration of mid-career professionals. System and colleague

recognition of their new role provides mentors with a degree of

professional esteem. Given the community's perceptions of teachers and

teachers' perceptions of themselves, this reinforcement of teacher

professionalism is significant. Where mentoring relationships are

successful and empathic some writers suggest that the process of

mentoring may contribute to the retention of experienced staff and the

development of loyalty and teamwork. (Turner 1995)

Among mentors and supervisors of beginning teachers the process of

mentoring caused these teachers to reflect on their own teaching

knowledge, beliefs and practices. Some looked at their beginning

teachers and recognised their own questionable practices.

You see your own bad habits in the classroom when you watch a beginning

teacher. Interview with Cathy 6/5/97

Furthermore mentors reported that working in this capacity had

broadened their knowledge and practice in teaching. (Mitchell et al.

1997 p. 5) Some indicated that observing the work of their beginning

teachers refreshed their own classroom practice - it motivated them to

"smarten up their own act."

However one mentor acknowledged that getting some experienced

colleagues to reflect on their own work was problematic.

[The school] can set up structures for supervisors to reflect on their

work but it demands sensitivity and this is a hard thing to develop.

It is more a quality you look for at the time of staff selection.

Interview with Cathy 6/5/97

Approaches to mentoring and training for mentors: generic or context

specific?

Within the Training and Development Directorate mentoring is a strategy

used in a number of different programs. Because the principles of

effective mentoring practice and workplace learning underpin the work

of all mentors, there is an argument for the development of a general

professional learning program for mentors. Such a program could be

applied in the preparatory stages of all programs that employ mentoring

as a strategy; furthermore training could be conducted in conjunction

with several different programs.

A generic program might include the following components.

An exploration of the roles of mentors

Developing the concept of professional learning and understandings of

approaches to workplace learning

Consideration of relationships between mentors and mentorees and how

these may change

Communication and negotiation strategies

Ethical issues and their implications for professional conduct in

mentoring relationships

Consideration of the dimensions of support and assessment

The interaction of workplace culture, approaches to workplace learning

and mentoring relationships.

Alternatively the close relationship between each specific context (the

workplace and each program's purpose) and the nature of mentoring

relationships suggests that it may be appropriate for mentor training

to be developed and conducted within different programs. The context

generates variations in roles for mentors. In some programs mentors

have significant roles in assessment or appraisal processes. In other

programs such practice is contradictory to the roles of mentors.

Approaches to professional learning and workplace cultures may vary

considerably. This can have significant impact on the way mentoring

relationships develop. Effective training for mentors needs to address

these contextual issues. It should also be noted that mentoring

practices vary considerably within some programs because of the

variations in workplace settings and cultures. Within the beginning

teacher induction program some mentors may be directly engaged in

processes of assessment and appraisal while others may only take on

roles of support.

The experience and professional learning needs of both mentors and

mentorees also determines the way mentoring strategies are applied.

Mentorees in retraining programs, whilst entering a new area of

teaching, may have decades of experience in school education. Training

for mentors in such programs therefore needs to address the concept of

mentoring in a way different to that applied in beginning teacher

induction programs.

The constraints of program schedules and the location of mentors and

mentorees limits the opportunities for generic induction programs to

address the issue of economy of scale.

In essence professional learning involves the creation of personal

fields of meaning in conjunction with access to new knowledge.

Professional dialogue within the individual and between colleagues are

processes that underpin approaches to mentoring and the training of

mentors themselves. There may be opportunities for general mentor

training or mentor professional learning programs to be delivered

using passive and interactive electronic means. Mentors could learn

about and participate in a professional dialogue about their roles by

engaging with and responding to material, perspectives and information

provided in virtual seminar groups on the Internet.

The literature is consistent in identifying the provision of mentor

training as critical to effective workplace learning programs. In the

review of mentoring strategies used in Directorate retraining programs,

the training that mentors received appeared to be a significant factor

in how they understood and embraced their role. Evaluations of

retraining, induction and other professional development programs

consistently recommend the systematic provision of training and ongoing

support for mentors. Despite these findings and recommendations the

inconsistent approach to mentor training is also worthy of note. The

rhetoric of workplace learning and mentoring strategies is often not

matched by provision of resources. In 1991 the NSW Department of

School Education evaluated beginning teacher induction practices

throughout Australia. The findings in the final report endorsed the

concept of training for mentors and recommended that adequate resources

be provided to support mentor training and mentoring strategies.

However in 1997 the issue of provision of resources to support

mentoring in induction programs remains problematic.

Recognition and accreditation of mentors

There is frequent reference in the literature to the formal recognition

of mentors and their roles in the professional development of

colleagues. Some formal mentoring programs conducted in the United

States involve salary increments and accreditation by employing

authorities and tertiary education institutions. In the UK some

provide forms of accreditation and academic credit towards degree

programs for mentors of student teachers. In Australia employing

authorities sometimes provide certificates as formal recognition of

participation in mentoring programs and mentor training. This practice

applies in some of the retraining programs conducted by the NSW DSE.

Closure and recognition of the mentor's role and the relationship were

identified by mentors involved in the NSW DSE retraining programs.

While the Directorate's programs were generally praised, some programs

appeared not to offer any sense of closure for mentors. Some mentors

expressed a desire to meet with their initial training group again to

follow up and debrief, for example at a dinner, or in some other

context which would provide a sense of completion to their work. One

mentor said that she appreciated the opportunity the data collection

interview provided to reflect on her experience as a mentor.

Recognition of their mentoring experience for use in personal

portfolios was frequently suggested by mentors. In some roles such as

those of careers advisers, there were few other opportunities to

demonstrate peer leadership skills required for career progression.

In Australia payment of allowances for mentors is generally restricted

to teachers involved in the supervision of student teachers. Some

programs involving mentoring are supported by resources in the form

relief for mentors to work with mentorees. Where such resources are

allocated to support mentoring strategies, mentors and mentorees report

more effective professional relationships and collegial environments.

For some mentors formal recognition, rather than monetary allowance,

contributes to their sense of professional efficacy.

Informal recognition of mentors by principals and colleagues within

schools also appears to be a positive influence on mentors. Those who

worked as mentors to beginning teachers indicated that being approached

by the principal or their colleagues to take on the role was valued as

a form of professional recognition. The dearth of effective

recognition and accreditation for most mentors may account for the

inconsistent adoption and implementation of mentoring strategies in

workplace learning programs for teachers.

Evaluation of mentoring strategies

Evaluation of mentoring strategies in programs of professional

development is generally informal and is conducted as a self evaluation

and through observations on the part of mentors and mentorees. The

essential question 'How do we know mentoring has been an effective

strategy in another's professional learning?' is usually answered in

terms of the quality of the relationships, self-understandings and

observations of development in others.

Qualitative judgements on the part of both mentors and mentorees form

the basis of evaluation at this level. Effectiveness is determined by

an "intuitive knowing" on the part of mentors and through their

observation of mentorees' progress and development. With regard to

beginning teachers and retrainees evaluation of mentoring involved

judgements about the emerging competence of mentorees.

I could see very strong influences of mentors in two of the beginning

teachers. They had taken on some of the skills and styles of their

mentors. in the case of one teacher, a shaky start developed into a

strong report. This teacher had integrated the very best factors of

the mentor's teaching in her own work. Interview with principal 22/9/97

Mentoree's describe the usefulness, and measure the effectiveness of

mentoring relationships in terms of the support they received or had

access to, the sense fellowship with the mentor, the feeling of

belonging to a group or school, and the emergence of a confidence and

professional identity.

You tend to get it all together and you feel sure in yourself.

I feel that I've developed my confidence. I can see the kids are

learning and I can see the changes in kids. Some have come a long way.

Beginning teacher interview s 22/9/97

At the program level mentoring strategies are evaluated in terms of

mentoring relationships developed and maintained over the course of the

program, the development of competence leading to greater professional

independence, and successful professional socialisation.

Location of mentors

The nature of the program often determined where mentors were located.

In the beginning teacher induction program mentors were present in the

same school. The most effective and sustained mentor relationships

were those in which the mentor and mentoree worked in close proximity

to each other - either working from the same staffroom or teaching in

adjacent rooms. Where beginning teachers identified their own mentors,

these people were invariably those who worked close by. Immediate and

informal access characterised the operation of these mentoring

relationships.

Retraining programs, by necessity, used mentors located in other

schools and parts of the state. In cases where the retraining programs

involved specialist staff, the mentoree was often professionally

isolated. In these situations there appears to be little alternative

to mentoring from a distance. Communication by phone and use of relief

days to permit school visits by either mentor or mentoree were the

principal means of developing and maintaining the mentoring

relationship. Distance and the inaccessibility of both mentor and

mentoree nevertheless did hinder and frustrate the work of mentors.

The mentor's role in professional socialisation appears to be strongest

where the mentor is in close proximity to the mentoree. Where mentors

and mentorees can be identified within the same school the

effectiveness of the relationship is enhanced by the location of both

parties close to each other, preferably in adjoining classrooms.

Mentoring, school culture and school development

Mentoring relationships, as key components of collegial approaches to

professional learning, can contribute to school improvement. Mentoring

relationships involving more experienced colleague practitioners,

sustain and support professional learning of individuals and groups in

the workplace and have the potential to embed and reinforce an ethos of

enquiry and professional learning as a cultural norm in schools.

Experiences of mentors involved in school-based initial teacher

education programs in the UK suggest that mentoring has advantages for

both the individual and the school. (Martin 1996) Mentors developed

collegial networks within their own school that transcended subject

areas. A culture of professional learning and support was

strengthened as a result.

School culture shapes the value placed upon professional learning. The

existence of effective mentoring relationships tends to reflect

cultures of collegiality, development and enquiry. One principal

commented upon the success of mentoring strategies in a school:

The school has a long philosophy and commitment to peer support so

mentoring fits into the culture of the school. Peer coaching has been

part of the professional development program in the school and I see

mentoring as incorporating peer coaching. Mentoring works best in a

culture of openness. Interview with principal 22/9/97

Because school cultures have a significant influence on the functioning

of mentoring relationships and the work of teachers, there may be a

need to consider the appropriate matching of schools as well as mentors

and mentorees where mentors and mentorees are located in different

schools.

Perceptions of mentoring strategies within schools

While there was variation in mentoring practices in schools with

beginning teachers, all of the teachers interviewed recognised

mentoring as a part of teachers' professional practice. In schools

involved in the retraining programs knowledge of mentoring strategies

and understanding of their application in retraining programs was less

extensive. Communication to others in each school besides the mentor,

about the purposes of mentoring, the roles of mentors and approaches to

workplace learning, appears to have a significant bearing on the way

mentoring relationships operate and the profile of mentors.

There appeared to be some initial misconceptions in some schools

involved in retraining programs, about the role of mentors.

Occasionally mentors were viewed with suspicion as assessors rather

than mentors and staff appeared to know little of the mentoring process

as an approach to workplace learning. Mentors reported that their

colleagues in their own schools tended to misinterpret the reasons for

the mentor's occasional absences. This was exacerbated where mentors

such as careers advisers were difficult to replace or the school

adopted a policy of not employing casuals to cover the mentor's

absences, despite provision of relief days. Mentorees' schools tended

to be more welcoming and appreciative, being the more obvious

beneficiaries of the programs.

Areas of further research arising from the study

Mentoring is a popular concept applied in training and development

programs involving schools and teachers. However in the process of its

application, mentoring tends to become an artefact of training and

development rather than a strategy in an integrated approach to

professional learning. Mentoring as an approach to teacher

professional development raises the issue of what constitutes

professionalism in teaching. In the context of beginning teacher

induction it has implications for the professional socialisation of

teachers, conceptions of teachers' work, the shape of schooling, and

approaches to student learning.

Of particular interest are the interactions between structured

beginning teacher induction programs, approaches to teacher

professional learning and different school cultures. Evaluation

research might explore the following question:

How are induction programs and retraining programs, based on a

workplace learning model, implemented in different schools?

The workplace learning model of teacher professional development

involves the implementation of context specific induction and

retraining programs for beginning teachers. Evaluation research, by

focusing on the implementation of these programs, could examine their

impact, together with the processes involved in implementation. (Owen

1993) Such a study could involve:

the description and analysis of programs in terms of their theoretical

bases and assumptions, and their relationship to other approaches to

induction and retraining.

an exploration of the workplace learning model of teacher professional

development.

an examination of the interaction of the induction and retraining

programs and school cultures.

Conclusion

Initial professional learning experiences are critical to the

subsequent professional development of beginning teachers and the

ongoing professional development of teachers engaged in retraining.

The successful implementation of school-based induction and retraining

programs is directly related to conceptions of, and approaches to,

professional learning in each school. A workplace learning model of

teacher professional development applied to induction and retraining

programs, has significant implications for the practice of supervisors

and classroom teaching colleagues. Effective workplace learning for

teachers requires that relationships between mentorees and their

mentors/ supervisors transcend simple novice/ expert relationships that

imply passive transmission of knowledge and skills. Professional

practice in teaching requires teacher reflection and the exercise of

judgement. Mentoring is most effective where there is an alignment of

the strategy with a general collegial approach to professional

development within each school.

Mentoring and induction practices are closely related to the concept of

professionalism in teaching and mentors have a key role in the

professional socialisation of teachers, particularly beginning

teachers. The professional perspectives, values and personalities of

mentors have a major bearing on the nature and development of mentoring

relationships. School culture also has a strong influence on mentoring

and induction practice and by implication, the process of professional

socialisation. If workplace learning and the process of mentoring are

to advance public education and contribute to improvements in schools

and the learning of students, then they must be able to facilitate a

questioning of existing conceptions of teachers' learning and teaching

practice in schools. A workplace learning model of teacher

professional development has at least two possible outcomes. It has

the potential to be a radically conservative influence in schools if

its effect is to transmit and sustain the status quo; or it could serve

to challenge and transform the shape of schooling and education in

general. Mentoring is most potent as a professional learning strategy

for mentorees and mentors when it leads to the transformation of an

individual's perspective through the dialogic and self-reflective

domains of learning. (Marsick and Watkins 1990)

The programs in this study and many of those reported in the

literature, that employed mentoring as a workplace learning strategy,

lacked substantial resources to support mentor training and the

establishment mentoring relationships. The popularity of workplace

learning and mentoring has corresponded to the implementation of

policies of devolution and economic rationalism. As a consequence the

political economy of teacher professional development and public

education in general has led to cynicism amongst teachers regarding the

professional legitimacy of workplace learning strategies. Before the

concepts and strategies of mentoring and workplace learning are

formally acknowledged as elements of professionalism in teaching, the

gap between system rhetoric and practice will have to close.

Furthermore the emphasis on individual teacher professional learning,

regardless of its theoretical and practical legitimacy, tends to

deflect attention away from the structural and ideological impediments

to more effective teacher professional development. (Smyth 1992) In

this way the responsibility for improvements teacher professionalism

and the status of teaching is located at the level of the individual

and the school rather than at a system level. The assumptions that

underpin current approaches to public education and teacher

professional development go unquestioned. The issues of teacher

professional development, professional status and beginning teacher

induction tend to be addressed through an ideology of privatism and

individualism and the legitimacy of a market conception of education is

often unquestioned. Dudley and Vidovich describe this process as the

ideology of consent. (Dudley and Vidovich 1995) Issues in education

such as teacher professional development and teacher appraisal, are

conceptualised in terms of efficiency and effectiveness - the

vocabulary of market economics - rather than in terms of social

democracy.

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