Coping with political change: Three women professionals of ChinaKate AllenThe current government campaign in China against spiritual pollution lacks the advantage of novelty, as such campaigns have been returning in cycles since the policy reforms and opening to the outside world were undertaken in the late 1970's (Farley, 1996). In 1993, The China Daily, the official English newspaper in China, described new government regulations to control the spread of "entertainment programmes that violate China's Constitution or that promote feudal superstitious ideas, murder and violence, pornography and other subjects harmful to the body and mind of the people"( "Beijing control, " 1993). Recent articles in Time (Spaeth, 1996) and Newsweek (Wehrfritz, 1996) incidate that the campaign continues and has been broadened to control access to internet sites. Much of the "pollution" comes via the English language.Since the 1970's, China has radically reformed its economy and at the same time it has encouraged the teaching of English because a knowledge of English was seen to serve modernization and economic expansion. English is the most popular foreign language and is taught in high school and universities. But this knowlege of English comes at a price: to some of the leaders, it also produces spiritual pollution and ideological impurity. The tension between those who regard a knowledge of English as a means of learning about new ideas and thus becoming modernized and others who see it as a subversive force and therefore something that has to be checked has been an issue since the founding of the new republic in 1949. The ones who have borne the brunt of this tension are the English teachers. At times, teaching English has been a comfortable and respectable job. However, when the tide has been against English, then English teachers have suffered heavily for being considered subversive forces. Becoming an English teacher can involve social mobility but also on occasions the job has invited political persecution. The careers of three generations of college English teachers described here illustrate the effect of the varying official attitudes to the teaching of English in China. Their battle to become a professional and the choices they have made indicate that being an English teacher is not just a matter of deciding what or how to teach, but also represents in this case the complex nature of change whether it is political, educational, or economic change. First Generation: Zhao YunWell into her seventies, Zhao Yun has been retired for over 13 years. Although a retired university professor of English, she has not stopped teaching English. She still has individual students as well as English classes for groups of other retirees. By the time she retired, she was the head of the English department in a prestigious university of education. Over the years, she has been a high school teacher, administrator, and finally a college professor in a career that spanned more than forty years. In addition to these positions, she has also been a farm labourer and an inmate in a political re-education camp.Zhao Yun began learning English as pupil at a missionary school in Beijing during the1930's. Her mother was determined to send her daughter to school because having been taught by private tutor, she missed having friends of her own age. She wanted her daughter to have a modern education. This was not an easy choice as it meant Zhao Yun had to stay in Beijing with her grandmother. The rest of the family was hundreds of miles away in central China. Zhao Yun only saw her parents twice a year during the summer and winter vacations. However, this kind of upbringing was not unusual for middle class children. They were often sent away either to boarding school or to stay with relatives in Beijing, Shanghai, and other large cities since the best schools were in these major urban centres.Zhao Yun throughly enjoyed school and learning English. In spite of being evacuated from Beijing because of the war with Japan, she was able to finish her schooling. She wanted to go to university but faced much oppositon from her father who was concerned about the expense of a university education as well as her safety since the best universities were hundreds of miles from home. After much persuasion, Zhao Yun succeeded.Zhao Yun spent four years at university, majoring in English. She had very little money and struggled to pay for food, tuition, and books. Of the 33 students who began the course with her, less than half graduated as English majors. Most found English too difficult and therefore tranferred to other majors at the end of the second year. Zhao Yun claimed it was her love of English literature that motivated her. Nicknamed "bookworm," all she did was read. On graduation, Zhao Yun returned home for the first time in four years, but she only stayed briefly before moving to Nanjing to join her fiance. There she looked for a teaching position so that they could get married. When asked why she wanted to teach, Zhao Yun did not have any specific answer. At that time in China, teaching was and still is one of the most acceptable professions for women. At the primary and junior high school levels, women are thought to be best suited for teachers as they are considered more sensitive to young children and more caring. At the senior high school and college levels, where the emphasis is on subject content and passing examinations, most teachers are men. This is still true today not only of China but of many other countries. Zhao Yun did not have any formal training to be a teacher. A bachelor's degree, which indicated expertise in her subject, was considered sufficient. Again, the lack of any professional teacher training qualification is not unusual either for China or that time. Even today, almost 50% of the teachers in Chinese high schools are considered untrained (Robinson, 1991). The proportions are higher in those schools away from the cities.In 1948, Zhao Yun was hired as an English teacher at a leading high school in Nanjing, in Eastern China. Within a year the political situation completely changed. The Nationalist government fled to Taiwan and the Communists came to power. As the new government gained control of the country, it began to investigate everyone, especially the teachers because of their contacts with the former government (Fairbank, 1992). Most of the teachers in Zhao Yun's school were accused of being anti-government agents and dismissed. Because of her youth, Zhao Yun was declared above suspicion as she had no political history. Still in her early twenties, she was now a home room teacher and teaching the senior year students. In addition, she had a young baby at home to nurse. Working hard and willingly, she accepted everything and was highly praised for her dedication. "I became more active in the social activities in working. I thought I had to, to repent my mistakes, to work harder to show I was committed (to the new China)." Although Zhao Yun enjoyed teaching English, it soon become more and more difficult to do so. The Korean War and the increasing anti-American hostility made the teaching of English politically unacceptable. In 1956, she was sent to Beijing for one year to study Russian. Virtually all English teaching had been stopped and instead, English teachers were being retrained as teachers of Russian (Tang, 1983). Besides learning to speak Russian, Zhao Yun studied Russian pedagogy and Russian linguistics.On her return to Nanjing, Zhao Yun was soon promoted to the city education bureau where she joined a team of administrators and teachers. They were responsible for in-service teacher training in Russian, arranging demonstrations lessons, improving the curriculum and finally, in the summer vacation, selecting students for the local universities. She had to visit more than 200 city schools, all by bicycle.No sooner had Zhao Yun begun her new job when once again she had to change. Relations between the Soviet Union and China became strained and in 1961 they were finally broken off (Spence, 1990). Russian was no longer to be taught. Instead, it was to be replaced by English, but only in elite schools. A number of leading political figures felt that English was essential if China was going to modernise its economy and have access to the latest ideas ( Tang, 1983). Fortunately, Zhao Yun could speak English so she still had a job. Her English was bookish as she had not used it for a long time, but she had not forgotten it. Therefore, she remained in her position, this time training teachers of English rather than of Russian. Zhao Yun's work expanded as the demand for English grew. But there was strong opposition. The opponents wanted to avoid contact with western ideas and they encouraged teachers and students to go to the countryside and learn from the peasants. The struggle in education reflected deeper divisions in the Communist party. The battle for leadership spilled over into society and in 1966 China was plunged into the Cultural Revolution (Tang, 1983). Once again, English was no longer taught so Zhao Yun was out of a job. The group she supported had lost power.In 1970 she was sent to a re-education camp and struggled to confess her political sins. When the year was out, she was then sent off to the countryside to work with and learn from the peasants. She lost her home, her job, and her identity. All her training and professional expertise were considered useless. She had to start over again and begin a new life. It was believed that through this radical uprooting would come renewed political fervour and a clearer sense of how a person could serve the country. As an urban intellectual Zhao Yun had to learn to live off the land, like the vast majority of the people in China.For almost six years, Zhao Yun worked in the fields. But once Mao died, the political situation changed and she was able to return to Nanjing in late 1976. Because of her English skills, she was assigned to teach English in the provincial teachers college. Once again English teachers were in demand as China sought contacts with the outside world. Zhao Yun was eventually put in charge of methodology and made head of the department. When foreign teachers were allowed to teach at the college, because of her English skills, she was their official liason. After years of professional isolation, she made full use of all her contacts to become up-to-date. She joined professional associations such as the East China English Teachers Association, developed teaching materials especially for radio and television correspondence courses, and attended workshops. While her professional life blossomed, life at home was not so easy. Her husband died soon after finally being politically rehabilitated. But her resiliance and optimism kept Zhao Yun going - no matter what the crisis.Second Generation: Jiang HaoyunThe problems Zhao Yun faced in her career perhaps might have been expected as her generation made the transition to a new China under the leadership of Chairman Mao. Not only was a new government established, but also a different set of values as the Communists created a new society. Just as much as Zhao Yun's generation had to make radical adjustments, so too did the next. Jiang Haoyun, the second teacher interviewed, could well be considered Zhao Yun's daughter since she was born in 1950, the same year as her daughter. Jiang Haoyun and her generation were the first to be raised in the new China. Yet, similar to Zhao Yun, life was not easy. As she grew up and struggled to become a college teacher, Jiang Haoyun represents what is called in China the lost generation. Jiang Haoyun's father could have easily been a role model for the Communist party. Born in North China, he grew up in desperate poverty. Despite this, he taught himself to read and eventually was able to put himself through teachers' college, where he earned a bachelor's degree. Jiang Haoyun's mother had a similar background. In 1949, her parents, like Zhao Yun, decided to stay in China. Having struggled to get educated themselves, the young couple was keen to stay and help a new generation. Jiang Haoyun's parents never discussed politics at home. The children were told to work hard at school and concentrate on their studies. In the early 1950's, like all teachers, her parents were investigated and questioned. They were so scared by this experience, they consciously kept a low profile and were able to remain untouched by most of the political campaigns in the 1950's. By concentrating on the family and work, her parents felt they would be safe. This policy of being uninvolved meant they had few friends and more seriously, no connections that might be useful in times of trouble. Their daughter was later to suffer because of this lack of connections.Jiang Haoyun, a successful and hardworking pupil, was expected to go to university. But by the time she was a senior student, the Cultural Revolution had begun. For two years she waited to take the university entrance exams which had been suspended (Hu & Seifman, 1976). Finally, in 1968, together with her sister, she was sent off to the countryside to plant rice.Jiang Haoyun remained in the countryside for seven years. Even though each year, she was recommended by her co-workers to be sent to college, the recommendation never got beyond the provincial authorities. Since her parents had no useful connections, she was stuck.Despite these setbacks, her father kept encouraging his daughters to study. The chances of getting into college were slim, but as long as they studied, he believed there was always that possibility. In 1973, her father found some English books and sent them to Jiang Haoyun. He could read English but not speak it. At least with some knowledge of English he felt his daughter could become a teacher or translator. With the help of a dictionary, she gradually worked her way through simplified versions of Three Men in a Boat, Uncle Tom's Cabin , and Alice in Wonderland. She translated each book into Chinese, writing as small as possible because paper was so expensive. Today, the pages have long since yellowed with age and the writing is difficult to read, but she still keeps these translations."These are the books I remember most clearly. I just read the books and I didn't know the rules. I think my foundation (in English) was not solid enough because I just took down the new words and found the meaning in the dictionary, then I tried to make out the meaning. Until today I keep the translations I did in the countryside." In 1975, her luck changed. A former pupil of her father's was on the provincial admissions board and recommended her name to the local provincial college. Jiang Haoyun took the entrance exam for a two-year teacher training programme and passed. Although it was the minimum level of qualification, it would enable her to teach in a high school. More importantly, she could leave the farm. Jiang Haoyun graduated top of her class and the college, impressed by her performance, immediately hired her as a typist. In addition to typing, she had to run the library and was also in charge of the language laboratory. Since her qualifications were not sufficient for college level, she was not allowed to teach.Being in charge of the language laboratory and thus responsible for taping English broadcasts and preparing the students' tapes, Jiang Haoyun spent many hours listening to tapes. She knew she was a poor speaker of English, but hoped at least to develop her listening skills. Jiang Haoyun worked hard and again her luck changed. In February 1982, she was sent on a short teacher training programme. Even though she knew she was already three months pregnant, she did not tell her colleagues because she was determined to take the course. Jiang Haoyun did well, but as she was still not a full-time teacher, she had to continue typing. Since the lack of qualifications was against her, she decided to take a college degree by correspondence. Within a year after the birth of her daughter, she enrolled as a part-time student of Nanjing Normal University. With this qualification she hoped to be able to teach in college. After two years of studying on her own, Jiang Haoyun was once again fortunate. In 1985, she was accepted for a place on a one year training programme for assistant teachers at Nanjing Normal University. Zhao Yun, head of the English department, was in charge of methodology and thus taught her. Working hard, Jiang Haoyun not only completed the training course but had also finished her part-time studies. Now that she was qualified to teach at the college level, she became a full-time teacher. But even though she was promoted to lecturer, many of her colleagues still considered her a typist. Jiang Haoyun decided to carry on with her part-time studies rather than be continually looked down on, this time working for the university level qualification. When asked why she pushed herself so hard, Jiang Haoyun replied that her generation had missed their chance because of the Cultural Revolution. Her parents, especially her father, had always wanted the children to go to university, so she was determined to make up for the break in her education. Yet her husband, who had a similar history, was not driven in the same manner. She claims he is much brighter than herself but lazy. Although he was trained as a teacher, he was not particularly interested in teaching. All he wanted was to get back to Nanjing. His chance came at the beginning of 1989. But only he was allowed to move; his wife and daughter had to stay behind in the countryside because they did not get permission from the Nanjing authorities to change their residency permit.It took three years before she officially joined her husband, but once again she made use of the time. Jiang Haoyun resumed her studies by enrolling as a self-study student for the university level teachers' course. When she finally moved to Nanjing in 1992, she was unable to find a teaching position. Instead, she began working in an import-export company, dealing with trade documents. It was a new experience. However, the company would only employ her on a temporary basis. This, plus the monotonous nature of the work, soon convinced Jiang Haoyun to get back into teaching. At the end of 1992, she was fortunate enough to find a teaching position. It was in a college that had difficulties in recruitment because of being so far from the city centre. She is still there today and teaches English to students preparing for foreign trade and banking. Since joining the college, Jiang Haoyun has completed her part-time degree, learned French, passed a promotion examination in that language, and successfully completed a one year full-time course at Nanjing University. All this has been done in addition to her full-time teaching load, being made head of department, and her family duties. Jiang Haoyun's energy and drive come from her feeling of being deprived because of the Cultural Revolution. Her academic education was certainly disrupted by being sent to the countryside in 1968. But she did not give up. She claims her one advantage is that she can work hard. Despite this enormous drive, she is shy and reluctant to assert herself in public. During her years at the small provincial college, she never sought for promotion, preferring to let her work speak for herself. Once when asked why she had not written any articles, she told the leaders she was a poor writer and had nothing interesting to say. She sees herself as a good classroom teacher but weak in theory. Usually such an honest self-asssessment would not result in promotion, but this time it did, and she was promoted to lecturer.Her plans for the future focus on more study. Since her present college trains students in finance, Jiang Haoyun wants to learn more about finance so that the students can be taught English through finance. The students are talented and most have a high level of English. Rather than just teach the language for its own sake, she wants to use it for a specific purpose to teach finance. This means finding out more about the subject herself, so once again she has enrolled as a self-study student. Her other goal is to write. As an academic, she is expected to publish. Up to now, she has always hesitated since she regards herself a poor writer. After completing her programme at Nanjing University, she feels ready to write and also that she has a support group of her former classmates. Jiang Haoyun has learned to value herself and knows she can still do more. Her experiences have not hampered her. Again and again, she has been able to come back even stronger. She has the ability of being able to turn her limitations or obstacles to her advantage. This has not left her embittered nor sycophantic.Third Generation: Qiu WeiQiu Wei is the youngest of the three teachers I interviewed. I taught her as an undergraduate and later worked alongside her when she joined the English department at Nanjing University. Gifted and with an excellent command of spoken English, her life, in contrast to the others, has been a charmed one. Her success has been more the result of luck and timing rather than that of talent and ambition. Those who were born at the end of the Cultural Revolution are now coming into their own and are best able to take advantage of the recent changes in China. Qiu Wei was born in Nanjing in 1972. Her parents were classmates at Nanjing University, where they studied palentology. On graduation they married and were assigned to work in the same research institute, in the centre of Nanjing. They have remained there ever since. In comparison with the other teachers, Qiu Wei's family emerged relatively unscathed from the Cultural Revolution. Her parents were able to stay in the city and kept their jobs. Even so, she said they never talk about this period. When she was five years old, Qiu Wei as sent to live with her grandmother in Shanghai, where she started primary school. At that time, children in Nanjing only began to go to school at the age of six. After the first semester in Shanghai, Qiu Wei returned to Nanjing and went to the local neighbourhood school. She was a year younger than her classmates, but her parents had given her a head start.As an able and diligent pupil, she succeeded in entering the Foreign Languages High School, one of the best schools in Nanjing, specialising in the teaching of foreign languages. Qiu Wei did well in the entrance examination and was therefore put into the English track. Those students who scored the highest studied English; those with lower marks studied other languages that included French, German, and Japanese.Qiu Wei continued to work hard and it was assumed she would go to university as her parents and brother had done. In 1989, she passed the rigorous university entrance examination, but her parents were concerned about her future particularly now that the country was reeling from the shock of the government's violent actions against the students in Tiananmen Square. They wanted her to study something safe, but she preferred either to study history or go to the Beijing Insitute of Foreign Languages and continue with English. History was rejected as being too dangerous as was the idea of studying in Beijing. Nanjing University was finally selected because it was nearby and her parents knew many of the faculty. So, in September 1989, Qiu Wei entered Nanjing University as an English major. Qiu Wei had no difficulties with her studies and was considered one of the best students in her year. In her third year, she took the Test of English as a Foreign Language examination and applied to a number of universities in the United States, in the hope of being able to transfer and complete her degree. It was fashionable among the language majors at Nanjing University to do this. If students left before graduation, Nanjing University required that they pay back a lump sum for their subsidised years of study. This, plus the tuition fees in the United States, made a scholarship essential if the student was to survive in an American university. Qiu Wei was accepted but as there was no financial assistance, she remained at Nanjing University.After her senior year internship in a travel agency, Qiu Wei knew she did not want to work in business. The work was too monotonous. However, it has become increasingly difficult for women graduates to find employment. Companies prefer to hire men rather than women, since women are the primary care givers and are entitled to maternity leave (Li, 1994). Encouraged by her family, Qiu Wei successfully applied for a teaching position in Nanjing University. Her parents were happy as they considered teaching a safe and acceptable job for a woman.The transition from being a student to now being a faculty member was difficult and she felt that even though she was a teacher, in reality it was an extension of her life as a student. She was still with the same professors who had taught her for the last four years. She was still living in a dormitory, although this time there were were far fewer in the room. She had no training on how to teach, but was expected to function effectively in the classroom and adapt quickly. However, she did gain confidence from her ability to teach in English all the time. She tried to act in a more mature manner and look older than her students such as by wearing darker, older looking clothes and perming her hair.Although Qiu Wei had not succeeded in going to the United States as an undergraduate, she had not given up the idea. She knew she wanted to study for a masters, perhaps even a doctorate, but the problem was in what area. The popularity of different fields among students has varied according to the perceived availibility of financial assistance. Qiu Wei applied to study sociology though she denied being influenced by the current trend. She had taken an optional class in demography in her senior year and found this a fascinating introduction to sociology.Having a focus for study was only part of the problem; Qiu Wei also had to find financial support. Luck was on her side and she was awarded a four-year fellowship from a prestigious mid-western university to study sociology. This was enough to cover tuition as well as board and lodging. In September 1994, Qiu Wei travelled to the United States to begin graduate work. She is still uncertain about her future. Her fellowship is for four years. If she decides to stay in teaching and become a university professor she will continue and write her doctorate. She estimates this could take a further six years, during which time she would also be expected to publish. But she is unsure if she wants to stay in academia. She claims that there is no Chinese professor in sociology in the United States and doubts if she could succeed, particularly with the pressure to publish. When her fellowship expires, she thinks she might switch to something more lucrative such as business studies or computers. When asked if she would ever go back to China, she says she does not know. By returning to China with a doctorate, she could expect to receive rapid promotion and other benefits such as better housing and more opportunities to go abroad (Li, 1992). However, she believes that the opportunities for research in China, especially in sociology are limited.So far Qiu Wei's life has been straightforward. She was expected to do well in her studies and go to university; this she did. Once she began her bachelor's degree, she was expected to do graduate work, preferably abroad as this would be more prestigious. Again she fulfilled family expectations and was admitted to a leading university in the United States, and at the same time secured a valuable fellowship. She has used her family connections and her talent to great success. She has also been very fortunate not to have been hurt by any political movement. In China, talent and abilty are not enough; timing, particularly in terms of political events, counts the most. Like most of her generation, Qiu Wei is priviledged and has not suffered from any discrimination. Certainly to get this far, she is disciplined and ambitious. It is interesting to speculate how she would have fared if she had run into the political pressures JiangHaoyun and Zhao Yun encountered.Summary of conclusionsThe interviews with the three teachers cover one of the most dramatic periods in Chinese history. During this time, all traditional values and ideals have been questioned and at times rejected. The effects of these changes may be seen in the lives and careers of these three women. But by looking at the work of these women as it spans almost fifty years, we can get a sense of what it means to be a teacher, in particularly an English teacher, in different social and political contexts. During the Cultural Revolution, the saying "It is bad fortune to be a teacher" was commonplace as teachers bore the brunt of the initial persecution (Hu & Seifman, 1976, p.194). Today, in China, there is a critical shortage of teachers at all levels and it would seem the profession is again discredited although not for political reasons. Teachers are leaving the profession, preferring instead to go into business rather than struggle over low, and often unpaid wages, and poor working conditions (He, 1994; Xi, 1994). However, the situation is complicated by the reluctance of companies to hire women (Xu, 1994). One career that is accessible to women is teaching. Yet young students are reluctant to enter teaching. For instance, language students, especially if they are English speakers, are able to find more lucrative employment than teaching because English speakers are in great demand for international trade. The youngest of the three women, Qiu Wei, illustrates this new generation of students. Although she has already taught at the college level and is currently doing graduate studies, it is unlikely she will stay in teaching. On the other hand, Jiang Haoyun, since she is older, is most probably going to remain a college English teacher. Certain similarities emerged in the interviews. For all three women, the family is one of the main factors for their success as English teachers. Each family has a high regard for education and ensured that the daughters benefitted from it. The families encouraged their daughters to read and had books at home. This is in a country where illiteracy among women is higher than that for men and also where there is a higher primary school drop out rate for girls (Robinson, 1991). Traditionally, women in China were not educated because it was regarded a waste of money, as the young woman would marry and then go and live with her husband's family (Robinson, 1991). Despite these traditions, it was Zhao Yun's mother that enabled her to go to a school and encouraged her to pursue her education. She wanted her daughter to receive the things she never had, even to the extent of encouraging Zhao Yun to go to university and study English. Jiang Haoyun was equally inspired by her parents. Since they had experienced much difficulty in getting educated themselves, they were determined their children would not suffer from any lack of education. Jiang Haoyun also has a supportive husband who has looked after the family whenever necessary. Finally, with the youngest teacher, Qiu Wei, her parents have encouraged and assisted her in every way possible so that she could make the best of any opportunity, beginning with giving her a head start in primary school. In addition to the family support, another critical factor in the success of the three teachers is that all live in a large city. Resources in China, particularly in education, are unevenly distributed. The cities have the best schools, the best teachers, and therefore the educational opportunities (Robinson, 1991). It is not something new. Zhao Yun's parents recognised this when they sent their daughter off to primary school in Beijing even though it meant she lived apart from the family. For the sake of her education, they were prepared to see their daughter only a few times a year and pay the expensive tuition fees. The other two women were fortunate to be brought up in Nanjing and therefore were able to attend key schools, schools intended to produce an elite (Lewin & Xu, 1989). Even though there had been a change in goverment and thus ideology in 1949, these elite schools continued. The Cultural Revolution was in part a reaction against such kinds of exclusiveness, but once it finished, these types of schools were restored (Lewin & Xu, 1989). Today, there are still key schools and key universities that attract extra funding and the better teachers. The three teachers benefitted from attending such institutions and together with their families, never questioned the values endorsed by such a system. At present, Zhao Yun's grandson attends a key school in Nanjing while Jiang Haoyun is making sure her daughter will go to a key high school.During the Cultural Revolution there was an attempt to create a more egalitarian education system and to limit the advantages of living in the cities (Shirk, 1979). By sending everyone off to the countryside, it was intended that all would experience what life is like for approximately 80% of China 's population. It was also envisioned that going to college would be based on this work experience and recommendations by co-workers (Shirk, 1979). Yet as Jiang Haoyun learned, these ideals did not fully succeed. Although she was recommended for college regularly by her co-workers, she failed because of her family's lack of influence. Each time she applied, her name was replaced by that of someone with more powerful connections, often daughters of college professors who, in spite of having being been persecuted, still had influence with college admissions boards. The Cultural Revolution attacked this influence of the urban intellectuals, but was unable to destroy it.The three families did not prevent their daughters from becoming English teachers. Zhao Yun's father's ability to speak French had enabled him to work steadily and therefore survive all the political and economic difficulties China experienced in the first half of the twentieth century. Thus her parents sent Zhao Yun to a school run by English speaking missionaries and as she become proficient in the language, they encouraged her to become an English teacher. Even in the case of Jiang Haoyun, whose parents suffered during the Cultural Revolution because they were teachers, did not dissuade her from becoming a teacher. Qiu Wei' s parents actively promoted teaching as a secure job for a woman. All three families considered being an English teacher synonmous with social mobility and job security. And yet, being an English teacher, as Zhao Yun's career demonstrates, is not necessarily safe. Depending on the political situation, English has been actively promoted or condemned. Today in China there is a huge demand for English teachers as the language is once again fashionable (Lu, 1991). Yet, as has been shown in the past, this could change. Of all the teachers, Jiang Haoyun is the only one with any thorough training in pedagogy. Despite her interrupted schooling, she took avantage of the adult education system to improve her qualifications. The qualification system in education is highly structured and the lack of respect Jiang Haoyun encountered because of the inadequacy of her papers motivated her to study. This hierarchy of qualifications values content knowledge over practical teaching experience (Lewin & Xu, 1989). Whatever the limitations, China' s adult education network is to be commended as it has enabled people like Jiang Haoyun and others to get necessary professional expertise (Robinson, 1991). This system, open to all, is one way of redressing the rural-urban imbalance of resources. But as Jiang Haoyun's story illustrates, the individual's own drive and self-discipline are crucial for success. All three women were able to be educated and become college teachers. All are ambitious. All are capable. However, as the story of Qiu Wei demonstrates, in the end it is the social-political context that is probably the most important factor in their success. Qiu Wei never had to experience the kinds of pressures that Jiang Haoyun went through. Even though Zhao Yun's career has not been smooth, she had the benefit of being trained and accepted as a professional teacher before she experienced the worst pressures. Traditional barriers against women together with political instability were challenges the two older women met and overcame. The question remains would these traditional constraints have been stronger had there been more political stability. One way of answering this would be to follow the careers of teachers like Qiu Wei and those who come after her and consider how they are dealing with the pressures of modern China. REFERENCESBeijing tightens control over spiritual pollution. (1993, October 29). The China Daily, p. 4.Fairbank, J.K. (1992). China. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.Farley, M. (1996, November 4). The polite patriots of China. The Yomiuri Shimbun, pp. 5, 10.He, J. (1994, January 1). Pledge to pay back teachers in a month. The China Daily.Hu, S. & Seifman. E. (1976). 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