Science teaching self-efficacy of preservice primary teachers: A review of research in three countries James J Watters-, Ian S Ginns-, Larry Enochs-, and Hilary Asoko- -Centre for Mathematics and Science Education, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia. -Center for Mathematics and Science Education Research, University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, USA. -Centre for Studies in Science and Mathematics Education, University of Leeds, UK. Abstract The state of science education in primary schools and the competence of primary science teachers have been under intense scrutiny, both nationally and internationally, for a number of years. Concern has continually been expressed about the science knowledge base of primary school teachers, the quality and amount of instruction in science in primary schools, and the associated preservice preparation of teachers. In addition, there appears to be little or no correlation between science education in preservice teacher education programs and the possibility that students would eventually teach much science in their teaching careers. The implication in this statement is that although one can increase the amount of science in preservice courses this will not necessarily lead to increased commitment to the teaching of science by teachers. Hence, there is a critical need to identify and establish the significance of factors, other than prior conceptual knowledge, which favourably dispose preservice students towards the implementation of science programs in primary schools. Two contributing factors, derived from Bandura's self-efficacy theory, therefore require investigation. The factors are the preservice teachers' personal beliefs about their ability to teach science and, secondly, their beliefs about the general effect of good science teaching on children's learning of science. This paper will report a number of studies into preservice teachers' self-efficacy beliefs, attitudes and behaviours in the domain specific area of science education which have been undertaken in Australian, American and British settings. The major focus of each study was to determine the personal and contextual elements that may cause change -or no change) in students' self-efficacy during preservice programs and may influence students' beliefs about teaching science in primary schools. Results from the various studies will be compared and evaluated. The implications for the teaching of science arising from the comparison of results for three countries will be analysed and discussed. Paper presented at the Australian Association for Research in Education (AARE) Conference 26-30 November, 1995, Hobart, Tasmania. Introduction The state of the teaching of science in primary and elementary schools around the world has been identified as being in crisis (Claxton, 1992; Department of Education, Employment and Training(DEET, 1989; Tilger, 1990). The DEET report implicated as one cause the inadequate preservice preparation of teachers in the science disciplines and they recommended that the discipline knowledge of primary preservice teachers should be enhanced by increasing the number of hours of preservice training that should be allocated to content oriented courses (DEET, 1989). Although content knowledge may be one factor in the preparedness and capability of teachers to teach science other issues are important to consider. In particular, the implementation of such a recommendation needs to be considered cautiously as it fails to account for the research on preservice students' attitudes towards science and science teaching much of which identifies the cyclical nature of "success following success and failure following failure" (Fraser, Tobin, & Lacy, 1984; Ginns & Foster, 1983; Koballa & Crawley, 1985; Lucas & Dooley, 1982; Morrisey, 1981; Schibeci, 1984). Expert teachers have sound content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge and content-specific pedagogical knowledge and apply all three types of knowledge in teaching (Leinhardt, 1990). They also have the confidence borne out of experience to teach science which may be related to attitudinal interests or a dispositional orientation towards science (Dweck & Elliot, 1983). Although extensive research has been conducted on teachers* knowledge, less has been directed towards the exploration of beliefs and attitudes. As primary preservice teachers tend to have inappropriate understandings of science and appear to have little interest in teaching science (Ginns & Watters, 1995; Tilgner, 1990), research addressing the relationship between teachers' beliefs, attitudes and practice is essential to clarify the most effective strategies for implementing change. The research described in this paper is designed to investigate beliefs and attitudes from a theoretical perspective of self-efficacy. Bandura's (1977, 1986) self-efficacy model has provided the most significant insights into the general behaviour of teachers (Ashton, Webb & Doda, 1983; Ashton & Webb, 1986; Dembo & Gibson, 1985; Greenwood, Olejnik & Parkay, 1990). In addition, Berman, McLaughlin, Bass, Pauly, & Zellman (1977) found that teachers' sense of self-efficacy was the most important characteristic determining the effectiveness of change-agent projects. Weber and Omotani (1994) contend that teachers' self-efficacy can be raised by improving teacher socialisation procedures, reducing beginning teachers' responsibilities, enhancing collegial relationships and constructing appropriate evaluation systems with the objective being that, when teachers believe they can influence student learning, they usually do. Therefore, self-efficacy should be an important consideration in the preservice preparation and induction of new teachers. A productive approach might be to follow Bandura's argument that performance is the major predictor of self-efficacy, which implies that students who perceive that they have had successful learning experiences in science will have a positive sense of self-efficacy. From a constructivist epistemology, successful learning occurs in a social and emotional context in which knowledge is constructed cooperatively by learners -Pintrich, Marx & Boyle, 1993). To what extent have preservice teachers experienced such contexts and do their university experiences provide these contexts? To answer these questions, changes in preservice teachers' sense of science teaching self-efficacy have been explored with several groups of students preparing to become primary or early childhood teachers. The study involved monitoring self-efficacy in students during their study of specific subjects. The influence of contextual factors in changing beliefs and attitudes was examined using quantitative and qualitative research methods. The aim was to develop more reliable descriptors and more powerful explanations of preservice primary science teacher preparation informed by the results of research into science teaching self-efficacy conducted in different countries. Thus, the specific objectives of this longitudinal comparative study are to examine changes in self-efficacy beliefs, attitudes to science during preservice training courses, and to explore students' recollections of the critical incidents that may have influenced their beliefs about themselves and science teaching. Background Teacher efficacy is a construct derived from Bandura's (1977, 1986) theory of self-efficacy. He suggested that behaviour is based on two factors, firstly, people develop a generalised expectancy about action-outcome contingencies through life experiences -outcome expectancy) and, secondly they develop a more personal belief about their own ability to cope, or self-efficacy. In cases where both efficacy and outcome expectancies vary, behaviour can be predicted by considering both factors. For example, Bandura (1977) hypothesized that a person rating high on both factors would behave in an assured, confident manner. Riggs and Enochs (1990), in accord with Bandura's (1977, 1986) definition of self-efficacy as a situation specific construct, observed that teachers' efficacy beliefs appeared to be dependent on the specific teaching situation. Consequently, teachers' overall level of self-efficacy may not properly reflect individual beliefs about their ability to affect specific subjects such as science teaching and learning. They state, "A specific measure of science teaching efficacy beliefs should be a more accurate predictor of science teaching behavior and thus more beneficial to the change process necessary to improve students' science achievement". Therefore, Riggs and Enochs (1990) devised the Science Teaching Efficacy Belief Instrument (STEBI-A) containing two standardised scales titled the Personal Science Teaching Efficacy Scale (PSTE) and the Science Teaching Outcome Expectancy Scale (STOE) for use with practicing primary school teachers. A similar instrument was devised for preservice teacher education students, STEBI-B (Enochs & Riggs, 1990). The development of these situation specific instruments represents an important step in our ability to acquire knowledge about teachers' sense of efficacy as a possible contributor to the behaviour patterns of primary school teachers with regard to science teaching. The results of previous studies in an Australian context (Ginns, Watters, Tulip, & Lucas, 1995) confirm that STEBI-B is a valid instrument for teacher educators to use in assessing preservice teachers' sense of efficacy in teaching science and that the instrument may be useful in monitoring changes in self-efficacy over the duration of a science course, or a complete teacher education program. In order to make students more aware of their beliefs and raise their levels of self-efficacy, teacher educators may resort to specific intervention strategies such as counselling sessions and associated techniques (Wadlington, Austin & Bitner, 1992; Greenburg & Mallow, 1982). The ease of administration of STEBI-B facilitates this approach by enabling the educator, if necessary, to monitor intervention strategies designed to address the negative beliefs of selected groups of students. The effects of any intervention program can be readily monitored with STEBI-B and, at the same time, science teacher educators can profitably use the instrument to inform their own teaching practice and performance. Efficacy studies of the type undertaken with preservice teachers in this study will provide additional insights into teacher behaviours in the classroom and enrich our existing knowledge about the teaching of science in primary and elementary schools (Ginns & Watters, 1994; Watters & Ginns, 1994a,1994b, 1995). Methods The design of this study was part of on-going evaluation and reflection on the effectiveness of preservice programs in primary science. The major study involves a combination of qualitative and quantitative approaches within an ethnographic research tradition to describe the situation and is embedded in an action research methodology. Self-efficacy theory has provided the framework for understanding behaviour but consistent with an interpretive research paradigm hypotheses have been generated that will provide greater insight into the patterns and interrelationships in which self-efficacy theory is applied. Quantitative data have been obtained through a series of survey instruments while rich descriptions of individual participants have been acquired through interview, open-ended questionnaires and observations. The data reported here are cumulative and will be illustrated with reference to appropriate case studies to exemplify generalisable assertions. Students The students were drawn from six cohorts of preservice primary or early childhood teachers enrolled at an Australian University and from two cohorts representing postgraduate preservice teachers at a University in the United Kingdom. Studies in the UK are preliminary but are reported here to provide comparative insights into the validity of the STEBI-B instrument. Context The Australian component of the research reported here builds on a study commenced in February 1992 (Lucas, Ginns, Tulip, & Watters, 1993). Annual enrolments in each of the four-year preservice primary or early childhood Bachelor of Education programs at this institution are of the order of 150-180 students of whom the majority are female (80-95%). The structure of science subjects in the programs involves students attending, on a weekly basis, a large group lecture of one hour duration and a two hour practical workshop in smaller groups of 25 over a 14 week semester. The students are taught a content-oriented Science Foundations subject in their first semester and a Science Education subject in the fifth semester of their program. The same instructors are involved in teaching both subjects. A three week general practice teaching component occurs towards the end of the Science Education subject. A one-year preservice teacher education program, a Graduate Diploma in Education (GradDipEd), is offered which enrols up to 90 postgraduate students. They are presented with a three-hour workshop focusing on combined content and methods in mathematics and science conducted over two semesters by two lecturers/tutors. One of the researchers (ISG) is responsible for the science component of this subject. Synopses of the various subjects are included in Appendix 1 The cohorts studied in the United Kingdom comprise students undertaking a one year postgraduate primary teacher education program (PGCE). The yearly intake is approximately 90 to 100 students. Students study an integrated science content and methods course for two semesters interspersed with extensive field experience sessions. One of the researchers (HA) coordinates and teaches in the subject. A synopsis of the subject is shown in Appendix 2. Table 1 provides a summary of the administration points of STEBI-B for the various cohorts. The first cohort comprised students commencing year one of the primary teacher education program (BEd-Primary). The second and fifth cohorts were comprised of students commencing a four year early childhood program (BEd-EC). The third and sixth groups were postgraduate students completing the combined mathematics-science content and methods subject as part of a Graduate Diploma in Education (GradDipEd). The remaining Australian cohort (number 4) consisted of students who had completed the first two years of their preservice (BEd-Primary) program and were enrolled in the core science education subject in their third year. The comparative study with students undertaking a teacher education program in England commenced in June 1995. As indicated in Table 1 data are available for a one off STEBI-B administration for the 1994/1995 PGCE cohort and the pretest data for the 1995/1996 PGCE cohort. Table 1 Cohorts of students that were studied in this project and administration points of STEBI-B Procedures Quantitative measures. At the beginning of the respective subjects each cohort of students was presented with the STEBI-B instrument (Enochs & Riggs, 1990) during a scheduled workshop session. Minor changes to the wording of some items were made to be consistent with local terminology. At the completion of the relevant semester all available students were posttested using the same form of the test. To simplify scoring computer readable score sheets were used by students to record their responses to each item on the instrument. The internal consistency and reliability of each administration of STEBI-B was confirmed by both reliability analysis and confirmatory factor analysis. Sample questions from STEBI-B are shown in Table 2. Table 2 Sample statements from Science Teaching Self-efficacy Instrument (STEBI-B) Personal Science Teaching Self-efficacy Statements-PSTE Q17 I will find it difficult to explain to students why science experiments work. Q3 Even if I try very hard, I will not teach science as well as I will most subjects. Science Teaching Outcome Statements-STOE Q4 When the science grades of students improve, it is often due to their teacher having found a more effective teaching approach. Q7 If students are underachieving in science it is most likely due to ineffective science teaching. Qualitative techniques. Adopting an ethnographic approach in which we sought to understand predeterminants and detailed experiences that may have impacted upon changes in self-efficacy, selected students from cohorts one and two were also interviewed before, during and after the end of the subject. The interview process also explored the extent to which the experiences of the learning environment were impacting on their beliefs and attitudes. Interviews were transcribed and "member checked" with the students concerned. Students in cohorts four, five and six completed open-ended questionnaires. The types of questions asked were informed by the assertions, issues and concerns that emerged during interviews with previous cohorts. The on-going reconnaissance of the situation was also informed by the results of other quantitative measures that were administered to the different groups and have been reported on, in part, elsewhere (Watters & Ginns, 1994). The various cohorts were also used by graduate students in independent but related research projects and the results have been used to inform us (JJW & ISG) of changes in affective and cognitive attributes of the students. Results The results of the administration of the STEBI-B are presented in Table 3 which displays mean and standard deviations for each group and, where relevant, the t statistic for the difference between means for pre- and posttests derived from a comparison of groups using the paired samples procedure. The factor structure identifying two major factors was confirmed for each administration. Table 3 Means, standard deviations and paired samples t-test statistics for PSTE and STOE scores on studied cohorts The interventions experienced by the BEd Primary (Y1) and two Early Childhood cohorts in the Australian component of the study as part of the Science Foundations subject were similar. In each case, there appears to a small positive gain in the mean PSTE which does not achieve statistical significance. Analysis of the data for cohort 1, for example, reveals that while a number of students recorded large increases in PSTE scores this was offset by large decreases in the scores of other students (Figure 1), which may partially account for the small gain in the mean PSTE scores. Consideration of the outliers was valuable in exploring specific issues and concerns that impacted on these students and these results have been reported earlier (Watters & Ginns, 1994b). In the case of subjects that combined science content and methods a significant positive change was noted (cohorts 3, & 6). Although the UK data are at this stage preliminary, it appears that a similar science content-methods approach may produce a significant change in PSTE for the cohort being studied. In particular, the positive impact of a methods approach is further supported by the change in PSTE observed in the BEd Primary (Y3) cohort in which the subject focus was explicitly on science teaching and learning methods. STOE scores are relatively stable across all cohorts with the exception of cohort 1 in which a significant decrease in mean scores was observed. Figure 1. Change in PSTE for students in cohort 1. The changes seen in the quantitative data are reinforced by the qualitative responses provided in interviews, questionnaires and through observation. The interpretation of the quantitative data are facilitated and enriched by an examination of specific cases. For example, Tony was a mature age student whose attitudes to science changed considerably during his course. While a member of cohort 4 he contributed substantially to workshop activities and discussions. However, at the initial stage of his university course he commented to the effect that as an early childhood student he was happy that he did not have to do or teach science. Indeed this student's aroused interest in science after completing Science Foundations contributed to his decision to transfer from an early childhood major to a primary major in order to have more opportunity to teach science. Early childhood preservice students do not study a core Science Education subject as part of their program. When asked at the conclusion of the Science Education subject to comment on the most positive experience he recalled, he responded: "having the confidence to tackle science and to have the strategies ...". In reflecting on whether he would have the ability and confidence to teach science he responded " Absolutely! Its not only content, its the classroom management, teaching strategies, and hands-on component of your program. We are all learners." Tony's STEBI-B scores increased during the Science Education subject on both scales (PSTE +8, STOE +4). A similar positive reflection was made by Zoe (cohort 1 and 4) who commented: "After having completed my project on light (a project to teach the concepts of light to a child), I feel much more confident in being able to teach this subject. The reason why I chose this area of investigation was because I was so weak myself, and wanted to increase my knowledge and competence in the area." Clearly a volition driven by an intrinsic motivation to be competent but catalysed by a learning environment in which she came to "really enjoy science" and supportive experiences "throughout this session we've been supported and helped wherever we've needed it." Her scores remained stable during the Science Foundations subject but were, at the same time at the top extreme of scores (PSTE 56, STOE 37). This student for exceptional reasons had completed Science Foundations in 1994 during which she recorded lower PSTE scores, albeit no change (53, 52) and marginally higher STOE scores (39,39). These comments are indicative of a range of statements made by students whose scores increased on STEBI-B. The impact of success underpinning beliefs and attitudes is captured in the expression of Cassy (cohort 4) when she said as part of a long reflection on her experiences in the subject: "I really enjoyed teaching science (field experience component), which was surprising for me. I think the best part is discovering new things, or suddenly understanding concepts which previously I found 'boring' because I didn't comprehend." Her scores increased (PSTE +6, STOE +3). In contrast some students' scores dropped during the Science Education subject. An analysis of several of these cases revealed specific issues or experiences. In one case where the score dropped on the PSTE scale 25 points, the student concerned had negative interactions with her tutor and at the time of testing was in the process of challenging her final assignment grade. In other cases, students had dropped from already very high levels, yet still remained at the mean or above with comments remaining consistent with a positive self-efficacy. These changes may reflect a regression effect. In the analysis of the qualitative data one assertion that surfaced was that many of the students who experienced large increases in PSTE acknowledged they already had an interest in science and enjoyed science. This assertion is supported by strong correlations between the enjoyment of science and leisure interest in science scales of the TOSRA instrument and self-efficacy observed in previous studies (Watters & Ginns, 1994b). The significance of prior interest and negative experiences is seen in the comments of Debbie an early childhood student in cohort 2 who explicitly stated that she hated science at the commencement of the Science Foundations subject. Although she worked very hard and obtained much assistance with the material and was successful in her assessment, her PSTE score fell by 11 points. She attributed this decrease to a lack of understanding of how to teach science: ... to actually teach science, I think I understand it a little more but to actually teach it I'd have no idea how to go about it.. um ..that was one thing I thought the course was really missing was like fair enough. We have to have an understanding of the science aspects in order to teach the children but, I really, I assumed when the course started to that it would be teaching us how to teach children and like even, though like I know why the sky is blue, and you know pressure and sort of things now, but I don't know what well I don't even, I can't even see how you would apply it in the kindy or pre school let alone how you'd teach it. This student held very negative beliefs about science that stemmed from factors associated with prior experiences and had set up expectations for the subject which were not met. The primary goal that she had set for herself was to pass the subject: "I just wanted to pass...I just..I mean..I suppose I didn't set any major goals because in the beginning it just seemed to me like high school math, high school physics and high school science and I couldn't understand it." This case reflects the notion that self-efficacy can be strongly influenced by the lack of successful experiences and also by the presence of memorable negative experiences as previously reported (Watters & Ginns, 1995). A final observation in relation to outcome expectancy scale (STOE). In a previous study (Ginns et al., 1995) statistically significant positive changes in STOE were observed after a semester of a science foundation and science education subjects of similar structure to those described here. However, the timing, sequence and context of these subjects were different. Significant positive changes in STOE have not been observed in any of the cohorts described here. However, examination of individual cases do reveal positive changes often reflected by comments that associate learning with the teacher's "enthusiasm and motivation in order to motivate children." Students seem to associate enthusiasm in the teacher, role modelling and explicit attention to generating enthusiasm in children as necessary to overcome extrinsic factors that may hinder successful learning of science by children. However outcome expectancy, which captures the notion that science teaching can be effective in overcoming children's home experiences, may be a concept that student teachers have not had sufficient experience with to comment about. The politically correct and common sense view held by preservice teachers would be that teachers are professionals who provide the most appropriate experiences for children and that negative environmental factors such as home environment would be surmountable. Conclusions Internationally teachers are facing tremendous pressures for curriculum change. With mandated national curricula in the UK (Department of Education and Science, 1991), national curricula statements in Australia (Curriculum Corporation, 1994) and standards being foreshadowed in the USA (Project 2061), teachers have had to cope with multiple pressures for change. For example, in Queensland the introduction of mathematics performance standards has substantially challenged teachers' classroom practices. Attitudes to change are shaped by many factors but important among them are teachers' beliefs about the subject area, beliefs in their ability to teach effectively in that area and beliefs about the effectiveness of teaching having any impact on children's learning. Given Fullan's (1993) contention that the engine of change is the individual teacher, research on attitudes and beliefs are crucial to ensuring that effective and useful change can occur. The research that we have conducted in this series of studies, and associated studies, not only highlights the importance of attitudes and explores some of the antecedent factors but also the reliability of STEBI-B as a instrument which can be used to monitor changes and to identify significant individuals requiring support or who can fulfil leadership roles. The preservice preparation of teachers of science has long been recognised as problematic. When engaged in the learning of subjects in which students lack confidence, experience or a sense of self-efficacy, high levels of anxiety are generated leading to an expressed desire to avoid the teaching of these subjects in their future career. Effective interventions need to address the source of low self-efficacy by providing opportunities for students to experience meaningful success. Concomitantly, it is desirable that all preservice teachers develop sufficient understanding of science to become effective teachers. Content knowledge and pedagogical knowledge are crucial elements of a competent teacher's repertoire. Understanding and knowledge is effectively accommodated when the learning experiences are personally relevant, build on prior knowledge and experiences, and occur in an environment in which the learner feels empowered to be in control of, or be able to impact on, the learning process. That is, in modern theoretical terms, a constructivist learning environment. The interventions that have occurred in these studies have explored how the such environments can be generated given the size of classes, university teaching policies, multiplicity of teachers, national policies and a professional belief in what competencies preservice teachers need in order to be effective teachers. Our ultimate goal is to establish learner centred programs in which students become actively engaged in the process of learning relevant and useful knowledge and skills to make them exemplary teachers of science, and also engage in experiences that are challenging, intrinsically motivating and perceived by them to be successful. To achieve this goal requires reflective teaching practices on the part of the instructors (Uprichard & Englehardt, 1986). Thus the intervention in the foundation subject in the Australian University was designed with several features in mind. Firstly, content focused on comprehensiveness to extend students' experiences and understanding beyond biological science which most had studied in school and for the most part students have a reasonable tacit knowledge. Secondly, activities were designed to model typical classroom activities that effective teachers of science would engage in with children. However, these activities were explored in more conceptual depth and implemented around common conceptual organisers. For example, students were introduced to the kinetic theory of matter (particle theory) over several weeks and a range of activities participated in that exemplified this concept-diffusion, capillary action, atmospheric pressure, change in state. The core strategies explored by instructors include group work, reflection on students' prior or initial understandings and extensive practical involvement with concrete examples. Extended strategies have involved counselling (Watters, Ginns, Neumann, & Schweitzer, 1994) and peer assisted learning interventions recently implemented with cohort 5. Many of these strategies have been tried, reflected upon and modified in an on-going action research process. The results reported here have shown small positive changes in self-efficacy for students in this subject. Indeed a fine grained analysis of the results in one of these cohorts has shown statistically significant increases in some workshop groups (Hanrahan, 1994). Given that we know many of these students have had extremely negative experiences with science prior to university, the strategies adopted clearly are beginning a long term process of initiating positive changes. For some students the changes are exceedingly dramatic. For others, used to more didactic approaches in which the examination material is presented and worked through, changes in strategies are less manageable. Many students are still locked into the culture of "tell me what I need to know to pass". Clear statistically and practically significant changes in personal science teaching self-efficacy were observed in the Science Education subject and in the integrated post-graduate subjects. The interventions in these subjects focused on pedagogical knowledge and gave students opportunities to explore, with individual children, issues and strategies concerning the teaching of science. Students were involved in small group projects in which they chose their own topic, set their own agenda in terms of achievement of objectives and produced a product of future utility, thus developing a sense of professional autonomy. The tasks were intrinsically motivating in that they required the students to work with children and to model practices that exemplified good science teaching and also provided opportunities for sharing worthwhile information gained by other students. This type of instruction, seen as an intervention in this study, was one step towards establishing an effective community of learners within the constraints of university teaching practices. The results for the Australian and UK components of the study reported in this paper strongly support the robustness and validity of the STEBI-B instrument as a measure of changes in self-efficacy. In any quantitative study the measures provide indicators to factors that are impacting on the context. Thus the self-efficacy instrument can provide teacher educators with on-going feedback on the effectiveness of their courses in addressing the needs of preservice teachers. References Ashton, P. T., & Webb, R. B. (1986). Making a difference: Teachers' sense of efficacy and student achievement. New York: Longmans. Ashton, P. T., Webb, R. B. & Doda, N. (1983). A study of teachers' sense of efficacy. (final report, executive summary). Gainesville: University of Florida. Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191-215. Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. 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Paper presented at the Annual Australian Teacher Education Association Conference, Brisbane. Weber, B. J., & Omotani, L. M. (1994). The power of believing. Executive Educator, 16(9), 35-38. Appendix 1 Synopses of objectives and content for subjects in the Australian University: Science Foundations Objectives: On completion of this unit students should be able to: 1.describe the nature of scientific endeavour and apply these principles to scientific investigation; 2.demonstrate knowledge and understanding of significant scientific concepts; 3.demonstrate high level thinking and problem solving skills in significant science concept areas; 4.critically discuss the nature of science, the historical development of science and the relationship of science to society; 5.use and understand appropriate scientific language and understand its relationship to general literacy. Content: The content is organised in the form of key ideas, or themes, which are considered throughout the semester. The key ideas are described below: a.Principles of scientific investigation. The basis of scientific endeavour and principles of scientific investigation will be investigated. For example, the scientific process skills will be critically analysed, in theory and practice, as a means of developing students' scientific reasoning. b.Atomic theory, properties of matter; energy forms and energy transformations. Fundamental concepts in the broad areas of matter and energy will be discussed. The structure of atoms and molecules will be probed in order to explain the nature and behaviour of matter. Concepts related to energy forms, such as heat, light, electricity, and energy transformations will be investigated. c.What is Science? A thorough examination of the nature and role of science will be addressed not only within the context of the topics already examined but as a separate issue of epistemology and the philosophy of science. d.Science and Society. Paradigms for scientific investigation have played a significant role in society's view of the world. Each modification to these views has brought with it a revolutionary shift in the scientific view as well as the social view of the nature and role of humanity and the world in which we live. In addition, studies have been carried out examining the nature of the scientific community, the organisation of scientific knowledge and the role of science in the economic well being of a country. An examination of these issues will be used to emphasise the interrelatedness of knowledge and social concerns as well as the approach to the solution of major issues. e.The literature of science. The original writings of scientists and the publication of views on the implications of their findings will illuminate all the topics as well as providing insights into the language and literature of science. Science Curriculum Unit Objectives On completion of this unit student should be able to: 1.analyse and describe the theoretical bases of science curriculum development; 2.demonstrate an understanding of the development of children's science concepts, reasoning abilities, manipulative skills, and attitudes; 3.articulate the components of and provide a rationale for any worthwhile science program; 4.demonstrate an ability to organise and use appropriate scientific materials and resources in various teaching environments; 5.prepare, implement and evaluate science learning experiences of short or extended duration, for children in a variety of settings. Content a.Bases of science curriculum design. It is assumed that students entering this unit will have a sound understanding of child development and learning. However, there are particular psychological, developmental and sociological approaches which have played a significant role in science curriculum design and development. The role of these various influences on curriculum development will be explored. b.The essential elements of a science program. In this topic there will be an emphasis on developing an understanding of the particular process skills and manipulative skills associated with science. The concepts and content of science appropriate to programs for children will also be examined. Each of these attributes will be specifically analysed, as well as their relationships to each other. c.Comparison of existing approaches to teaching science. Science learning takes place in a variety of ways and a variety of situations. Science educators have developed public programs such as in Science Centres. There are also alternative approaches in the schools such as Project Clubs. These will be examined for the insights they provide about learning. d.Science development associated with mathematics and language development. The use of words, their meaning and construction will be examined in relation to the development and articulation of concepts. Similarly the relationship between mathematics and science will be examined in terms of the contribution of mathematical language, concept development and problem solving to children's learning and understanding of science. e.Resources for science education. Science is highly dependent on appropriate resources and practical skills. These will be analysed, sources located and alternatives designed. f.The culmination of the science education program will be the development and implementation of units of work. These will be based on the analysis of children's concepts, skills and attitudes. Graduate Diploma of Education (2 semesters) Mathematics, Science and Technology Curriculum 1 Objectives On completion of this unit, students should demonstrate: 1.A belief in the importance of mathematics/science and its teaching, a keenness to improve their knowledge and skills in the field of mathematics/science education, and a positive and confident attitude towards the teaching of mathematics/science. 2.An understanding of the theoretical constructs of mathematics/science curriculum development, of the relevant concepts and processes, and of the emerging role of technology in mathematics/science education. 3.An ability to plan and implement worthwhile mathematics/science activities utilising a variety of teaching approaches that incorporate gender equity and social issues, and appropriate questioning techniques. 4.Correct usage of mathematics/science terminology, and suitable and motivating resources. 5.an understanding of appropriate research skills and an ability to analyse critically research pertaining to mathematics/science education. 6.A standard of presentation suitable for submission to a journal (i.e. neat appearance, legibility, good organisation of content, correct spelling and punctuation, good sentence structure, proper referencing). Content aBackground to mathematics/science education The nature of mathematics/science and the rationale for mathematics/science education will be examined. The theoretical constructs teaching model, knowledge types, instructional theory of mathematics/science curriculum development will be identified and exemplified throughout the semester in practical workshops. bApproaches to mathematics/science teaching Mathematics/science learning takes place in a variety of ways and settings. Various approaches to teaching mathematics/science will be investigated, with attention paid to gender equity and social issues. cKey concepts and processes in mathematics/science Key concepts and processes in mathematics/science will be identified and investigated from psychological and pedagogical perspectives. dTechnology in mathematics/science teaching The role of technology in teaching and learning will be explored, and practical work with computers will be conducted in the appropriate laboratories. Mathematics, Science and Technology Curriculum 2 Objectives On completion of this subject, students should demonstrate: 1.A positive and confident attitude towards the teaching of mathematics/science. 2.Proficiency in planning and evaluating a unit of curriculum in terms of appropriate sequencing of content, selection or development of relevant material, use of appropriate mathematics/science terminology, management of classroom environment and the evaluation of children's mathematical/science behaviours... 3.An understanding of appropriate research skills and an ability to analyse critically research pertaining to mathematics/science education. 4.An understanding of the nature of evaluation and assessment, the various types of assessment and the practical implementation of assessment procedures. 5.A standard of presentation of written material suitable for submission to a journal (i.e. neat appearance, legibility, correct spelling and punctuation, good sentence structure, properly referenced). Content a.Application of key concepts and processes in mathematics/science The concepts and processes identified, investigated and exemplified in Semester 1 will be transferred to other mathematics/science topics. The development of teaching episodes incorporating the concepts and processes will continue to be a major feature of the workshops. b.Technology in mathematics/science teaching The role and use of technology in mathematics/science will be exemplified throughout the subject. c.Child study - mathematics/science All of the components of this subject will be incorporated in this module as students select a child and a mathematics/science topic to assess, develop suitable instruments for assessment, analyse the child's performance from psychological, pedagogical and sociological perspectives and design and develop an individual program to cater for the child's particular mathematics/scientific needs. d.Assessment and evaluation The differences between assessment and evaluation will be examined and the nature and types of assessment will be studied. Appendix 2 Synopsis of subject at UK University Objectives During the subject you will be able to: Develop your knowledge and understanding of science, Become familiar with current ideas about the development of children's science skills and understandings, Learn how to plan, provide and evaluate activities which will support this development, Develop strategies to assess children's progress, Become familiar with the Science national Curriculum and consider its relationships to the whole curriculum. Content The content is organised on a semester basis as follows: What is science? Developing basic skills Children's learning in science Forces and their effects Living things (1) Investigations in science Materials (1) Electricity Planning a science topic (1) Light Feedback on teaching practice/Sound Energy Planning a science topic (2) Materials (2) Living things (2) Teaching and learning science Planet earth Assessment in science Using the environment (1) Using the environment (2) 6