Development: Extending the Do-It-Yourself Tradition Andy BeggCentre for Science and Mathematics Education ResearchUniversity of Waikato Abstract With the current political situations in many countries we find that more responsibility for curriculum and teacher development is being moved from the central administration to individual schools and teachers who are told "do-it-yourself". This move has advantages and disadvantages but other factors remain that were not considered by the central administration and need to be considered now by individuals. The prime concern with the devolution of responsibility is to ensure that development is effective. Finally another set of factors are discussed which might suggest the need for a paradigm shift in the way we think about teacher development if we want to make the outcomes of the do-it-yourself approach successful. IntroductionKia Ora Katoa, Nga Mihi No Aotearoa Historically New Zealand and Australia were occupied by resourceful indigenous people who had learnt to exist in difficult environments. When the British colonization of these countries began the early settlers demonstrated similar skills, with a scattered population and poor communication between settlements, this resourcefulness was a necessity for survival. As time has gone on this 'do-it-yourself' tradition has continued at all levels of society from research with limited resources, to farming where anything can be fixed with a piece of Number 8 fencing wire, and in teaching where teachers have invented, adapted and developed many innovations that the school was unable to purchase. Another reason for the success of the do-it yourself tradition might relate to the Scottish ancestry and the background of poverty that some of our forbears brought to the colonies. They knew that if something was not wanted then no matter how cheap, it was not a bargain, and they had quickly learned that expertise cost money and their own work, even second rate work, was less expensive and conserved their financial resources. Now we have the rise of the 'New Right' in politics (i.e. right as in left/right). The immediate effect of this movement seems to be a reallocation of scarce resources. More funds are moved to schools and even more resources are taken away from the Ministry. These more funds are to cover the costs of responsibilities which were never fully funded by the Ministry in the old environment and the official cry is 'do-it-yourself' (d-i-y). AARE/NZARE November 1992, Melbourne This push for do-it-yourself (or yourselves) is evident in a number of areas. I want to mention curriculum development with the associated resource development, and then concentrate more on teacher development which is my current research area. Curriculum and Resource DevelopmentIn the last few decades curriculum development has been the responsibility of the central agency. Syllabus development for students from ages 5 to 15 and prescriptions for awards for students in their last three years at school have been developed on the research, development and dissemination (RDD) model with very little been done at the research end apart from looking at overseas trends, a small group doing the development, and then, with varying amounts of support the documents have been disseminated. In mathematics for primary schools the developments have been extended to include textbooks which in many instances were prepared on the assumption that the teachers lacked confidence in mathematics and would therefore want the 'teacher-proof curriculum'. Perhaps this is the major research done in New Zealand mathematics education but unfortunately it has not yet been written up. The hypothesis seemed to have two parts: 1) that a teacher proof curriculum was possible, and 2) that such a curriculum would improve mathematics learning.The results of this experiment seem to me to indicate that both hypotheses need to be rejected. In the new environment in New Zealand a "National Curriculum" is produced, and sent out. This is the dd model - absolutely no research here (or in the UK), a small d for development reflecting the minimal time span for development and consultation, and another small d for the support in dissemination. The expectation of government is that if they legislate then d-i-y teacher development will ensure that the new curricula is adopted. The Ministry is letting some contracts for short courses so that they can say that they did some teacher development but these are likely to have a minimal affect as past experience suggests that the result will be that the curriculum will be adapted rather than adopted. The other d-i-y ramification is that our professional association (New Zealand Association of Mathematics Teachers) has decided to take a more positive and proactive leadership role in the development of future mathematics curricula. It is doubtful if the government had expected or planned for this. With the devolution of responsibility from the centre we have a situation where, without compensatory funds, primary schools have to buy texts from the open-market and as New Zealand publishers and authors are not yet geared up for this, overseas resources are being used. In the long run alternative series of New Zealand resources are likely to become available and more schools will probably move to approaches that are not dependent on texts. Teacher DevelopmentIn New Zealand ongoing teacher development, like curriculum development, was controlled from the centre. For mathematics, a number of strategies were evident:¥ a small number of in-term week-long residential courses were organized, ¥ permanent advisers for primary school mathematics, for rural schools, and for junior classes were appointed,¥ from time to time seconded high school mathematics advisers existed,¥ inspectors were appointed with responsibility for mathematics ,¥ teacher refresher courses (week-long residential holiday courses) regularly occurred, and¥ local in-service committees organized one-day long "teacher- only-days". At the same time the only other major players were the mathematics associations who regularly organised meetings. In the new environment the in-term week-long courses have stopped, the advisory service is slowly moving to user-pay, the inspectors have no subject responsibility and as review officers they are instructed to review and not to provide services, vacation courses have been reduced in number and the teachers pay more to participate in them. No funding is assigned for local in-service organisation but all schools have had to include a clause in their charters that indicate their responsibility to ensure that staff have professional development opportunities. The Ministry claims to have moved about 60% of the old inservice budget to schools and uses the other 40% for teacher development through a contract system. The 60% is probably an inflated value as in the old system many hidden costs remained hidden while now all costs are up front. The contract system obviously supports current political initiatives, and luckily for mathematics, we are one of these, but funding is minimal and there is no way that every teacher of mathematics in both primary and secondary schools is touched by these contracts. Thus schools are forced into the do-it-yourself position and are taking initiatives at the local level. Purposes of developmentPurpose of teacher developmentT dev concerned with content change or teacher change - what is taught or how it is taught - TG no use by itself for second hardly ever do teachers focus directly on improving learning outcomes. focus - subject, school improvement, personal growth centre model focuses on subject aspect, not individ or school (school thinks of school, hod thinks of subject) school usually focuses on school improvement 3 dimensions - school/subject/personal within subject: content & processes learning activities are drawn from this 3 d model and assessed without specific behav objectives - holistic - big chunks Needs appraisal -(cf assessment) Is staff development to provide teachers and students with a competitive edge, or is it valued in itself? (Robertson, 1992) - professional development as personal development, congruence between the person as person and the person as teacher. (Raymond, Butt & Townsend, 1992). Need plan for pda map is more important than a timetable (?H&F) Influences on developmentMy research (Begg, 1991), overseas work (Fullan,1991 and Owen et al, 1988) and work in New Zealand in the context of science education (Bell & Pearson, in press) have identified numerous factors that influence development positively. These include: - understanding the change process, - adequate time, - adequate resources, - numbers of people (not too few, not too many), - modelling of new skills, - reflection and feedback, and - support and assistancetogether with a number of factors that relate to local control, - ownership, - being close to the workplace - local issues are addressed, and - teachers are involved in planning. Advantages and disadvantages of the d-i-y approachThe d-i-y position for teacher development at least takes the factors related to local control (ownership, being close to the workplace, local issues are addressed, and teachers are involved in planning) into consideration. The other factors have often been ignored by the central administration and are just as likely to be ignored at the local level. With the central control of development many teachers were not involved at all in spite of the belief that centrally controlled activities ensured equity, and the philosophy behind the national control seemed to be an authoritarian one which disempowered teachers and encouraged dependency. The d-i-y approach at least allows autonomy and professionalism although it may take some time for teachers to move from what they are used to. HargreavesSelf initiated The 'fast track" development of a national curriculum is Policy decisions - few national, many local Present assessment and national standards emphasise the recall of low level facts with the implication of deskilling the teacher and the student. (Apple and Jungck, 1992) No expertise - efficiency solution not design solution Behaviourist not constructivist (make own explicit first) Areas needing attentionNumerous other factors need to be considered with respect to teacher development whether a central system or an d-i-y system is being used. Joyce and Showers (1980) categorised four purposes for inservice and five training components. Four purposes for inservice Five training components A General awareness of new skills 1 Presentation of theory/skill/strategy B Organised knowledge of 2 Modelling of skill underlying concepts and theory 3 Practice in simulated or real situation C Learning of new skills 4 Structured and open-ended feedback D Application on-the-job 5 Coaching assistance on- the-job Bolam (1987) linked these in the following matrix as the result of some research he was associated with. Level of A. General B. Organised C. Learning D. Application impact awareness of knowledge of of new skills on-the-job new skills underlying Training method concepts and component theory 1. Presentation/description (e.g. lecture) of new skills Ö Ö Ö Ö 2. Modelling the new skills (e.g. live or video demonstrations) Ö Ö Ö 3. Practice in simulated settings Ö Ö 4. Feedback on performance in simulated or real settings Ö Ö 5. Coaching/assistance on-the-job Ö Using this matrix it is possible to think about the required level of impact and design activities that include the necessary components. Where do ideas come from other schools, teachers guides or journals (professional reading) conferences, advisers, reflection on action stimulus material - get reflection going (Oberg & Underwood) where do we see models action research (invent own) prof reading advisers and conferences how can teacher trial & practice autonomy of teachers negotiate with colleagues negotiate with students support yourself need opportunities to reflect journal reflection critical friend (colleague or significant other) refection trialling - change practice and attitudes and beliefs (reflection - in action) Role of teacher developer (for those who can afford)to make themselves unnecessaryfacilitator - try to help teacher set up a processsupport networks (Equals, LISP TD Bell) Constructivism Effectiveness and cost effectiveness Effectiveness wrt student learning outcomes teacher behaviour is it going to be does it include components (Bolam) (DIY guesstimates for rates for these) Costs Time DIY time or school time Travel - nil or time & $ Expertise DIY, outsiders, or resources Resources - TG do they work? A paradigm shift? constructivism - big chunks prior knowledge assessment authority-autonomy gender and cultureRobertson - staff development- gender bias Interest in professional development Needs to be considered alongside other commitments - women bear a disproportionate responsibility for having the children. (Robertson, 1992) Gender friendliness of DIY Cultural friendliness of DIY professionalism¥ Needs appraisal or DIY self directed (Clark in H&F) ¥ planning ¥ but will they do it - other commitments (need time) reflection - metacognition (writing) Reflecting on search for ground where we stand (in the present) as the locus of ones roots (in the past) and as a source of nourishment for growth (into the future). (Oberg & Underwood, 1989, p 164) - note the importance of pre-teaching influences (influence how a teacher teaches, but also act as lifelong reference points).(Raymond, Butt & Townsend, 1992). Stages in writing 1) literal description of actual events from daily practice from insiders point of view, 2) review of these descriptions seeking a deeper understanding, 'seeking the ground' 3) broader reconsideration 'seeking the ground' (Oberg & Underwood, 1989) Emphasis on doing not talking Ignores views - not responsible - professional dev is personal growth - all growing Naisbitt - hi tech / hi touch Experiential learning (Rogers) SummaryNew right - right wrong AB Cyniccan not make another person learn - as T we all know this - and if hard with a F4 boy think of a 45 year old diehard maths tchr ¥ Theory of change ¥ pragmatism ¥ describe current td needs DIY can work Conclusion New right right not wrong in terms of td - individualism and collegiality ­ ­ usual state of p.d. mutual support (Raymond, Butt & Townsend, 1992). - voluntary, self initiated (but Òin order to know what we wish to do next, home......., we need to know ourselves, who we are, and how we came to be that way.Ó (Raymond, Butt & Townsend, 1992). Andro-centredness suggests: ¥ world is viewed and understood within a particular framework ¥ competition ¥ hierarchical power ¥ dominance ¥ conflict ¥ declarations of certainty ¥ over confident reliance on rationality ¥ quantifiable valued over subjective ¥ preference for instrumental and rational over affective and intuitive (Robertson, 1992) to make professional development programmes work for professional teachers É we must give the responsibility for professional development to teachers themselves. - adult development is voluntary - being in control leads to making more use of - each teacher is unique - teachers already operate in self-directed ways. (Clarke, 1992) Stress on leadership! /Male (Robertson, 1992) Women - stress relationships, people, communication, cooperative.(Robertson, 1992) gender neutrality mask andro-centredness encourages validation of the male paradigm, prevents us acknowledging uncertainty and the validity of experimental knowledge and considering alternatives. (Robertson, 1992) nb androcentredness is not synonymous with male-centredness but more masculine-centredness. (Robertson, 1992) Stress on need for expertise rather than on what teachers already know (and expertise implies outside expert sources)(Robertson, 1992) /Male research on teachers thinking supports the position that teachers are more active than passive, more ready to learn than resistant, more wise and knowledgeable than deficient, and more diverse and unique than they are homogeneous. (Clarke, 1992) Principles of design 1. - make implicit theories explicit (regularly, 1/yr, journal?) 2. - start with strengths. Not deficit model but what strengths can we build on. 3. - five year plan - an Arabic saying Òto the traveller with no destination, one road is as good as another.Ó 4. - look in own backyard (make the familiar strange) 5. - ask for support 6. - go first class (respect yourself - you deserve it) 7. - blow your own trumpet (Clarke, 1992) Jackson, (1992) discusses - way of know how - improving conditions - independence but stresses reflection - starting with thinking about episodes, about anecdotes - locate episodes within a larger setting i.e. articulate the context. Complex needs appraisal (req. expertise). Implementation is grounded in interpersonal communication but gender related aspects of this are ignored. (Robertson, 1992) Classroom-based teacher development is guided by five conditions: - focus improving quality of learning for science and technology - shared power - experiences in the classroom - inter-related personal, educational and social reference points (x) - constructive and critical actions (y) Could be alone with other teachers or with students. No one form of classroom-based teacher development. (x) Reference points - personally meaningful, educationally defensible, socially justifiable. (y) Reflective, interactive and transformative experiences. (Thiessen, 1992) (Here down Begg, 1992b) Bolam's analysis seems to fit the ideas of Fullan (1991) and Guskey (1986) in terms of the need to trial approaches and change behaviour first then attitudes changing later. If we accept this analysis then we conclude that if the desired effect is implemented change in the classroom then all five training components need to be included in a teacher development programme. With traditional teacher guides probably only the first training component is present and therefore all that is likely to be achieved is general awareness. If the desired changes are quite small then the descriptions in written form might substitute for the modelling of the new skills. The practice phase, and the two aspects of support (feedback and coaching assistance) need collegial cooperation of some type to supplement the input from a teachers guide. As a general rule it seems that traditional teachers guides or other posted material should be regarded as a component of a professional development package but the other component needs to be forthcoming from within the school or from some other local network. Perhaps each teachers guides needs to include suggestions on ways they can be used to make them more effective. This range of components is broad and includes opportunities for providing: ideas, resources (fixed or modifiable), models of teacher behaviours, and opportunities for on-going interactions with facilitators These components have the potential to be used with a range of people including those in remote situations, those who have significant family commitments that make them unavailable for other activities, those that have specific interests that are not connected to the needs of others in the school, and the normal needs that are identified in the majority of schools. Having potential of course does not imply effectiveness but present development activities do not seem to affect large numbers of teachers and so the need to investigate methods that reach more people seems important. Costs Two main types of costs exist: System costs that are borne by either the central authority or the school, and Teacher costs that are borne by the individual teacher. Some costs may belong to either of these. Some examples of costs include: System costs ¥ the costs of teacher relief; ¥ costs of experts (from advisory services, on contract to the Ministry, hired by a school or group, or allowed for in the staffing of schools); ¥ travel costs; ¥ cost of resources (from the centre or purchased by the schools); and ¥ fees reimbursed (for study, conferences or other activities). Teacher costs ¥ private time given over for development; ¥ travel, resources, and fees not reimbursed by the system. Effectiveness I am not aware of research regarding the comparative effectiveness or cost effectiveness of different models of professional development. Indeed most of the evaluation of professional development activities has been done after the event by the providers who have a vested interest. More than that, I am aware of the exceptional difficulty in analyzing long term change in performance of students and/or teachers. With no data on effectiveness of courses I am going to make some "guesstimates" based on: (i) whether or not a project has an input of new ideas, and (ii) whether or not it is spread over time so that - teachers might be involved in the planning and develop ownership - time is available for the trialling/practice of new skills, and - time and opportunities are available for feedback and support. If one takes an arbitrary figure (say 10) as the potential effectiveness of a 1-day (5 hour) meeting of a group of teachers, then it seems reasonable to rate the effectiveness of a 1-week course as 80, while if the 5 days are spread over a period (say a term) then the potential might rise to 100. If the 5 days are split into ten 2.5 hour sessions then the potential might rise to 120 but if the teachers are expected to hold all these sessions after school when they are tired then the figure could well fall back to 90. If new ideas are provided by an expert or from a teachers guide then I would expect to multiply these guesstimates by 1.4 and if both were provided then perhaps by a factor of 1.7. Obviously such "guesstimates" are not reliable but they give some insights into the potential cost effectiveness of various models and the methods of analysis would be appropriate if accurate measures were able to be obtained.. Cost-effectiveness Cost effectiveness for an activity is a measure obtained by dividing the estimate of effectiveness by the cost. Cost effectiveness can be looked at from the viewpoints of the system, the teachers, or from an overall position. While it is reasonable for policy makers to look at cost- effectiveness for the system it is more equitable to look at overall cost effectiveness. Some models To illustrate this analysis I have used a series of alternatives with teachers only and then a series of alternatives with inputs from experts, teacher guides or both. This table shows my analysis: Time Components Cost/teacher Effect Cost effectiveness 1 day teachers only 200 10 10/200 = 5% 1 week teachers only 1000 80 80/1000 = 8% 5 days teachers only 1000 100 100/1000 = 10% 10 half days teachers only 1000 90-120 9% to 12% 5 days teachers only 1000 100 100/1000 = 10% 5 days with TG 1030 140 140/1030 = 13.6% 5 days with expert 1250 140 140/1250 = 11.2% 5 days with TG & expert 1280 170 170/1280 = 13.3% I have not tried to separate teacher and system cost but the obvious preference of policy makers in the present economic climate would be to try to have the major input (TRDs) replaced by the teachers own time. I have also not considered travel costs which have some distorting effects. One further consideration regarding cost is concerned not with the unit cost but with the total budget for professional development. Most schools seem to be budgeting for about 1.5 TRDs per teacher ($300) and if the central system has disbursed about 70% of the total professional development budget then this means that only about $400 per teacher is available in any one year for each teacher to cover all subjects. This implies that the options where the system cost is over $200 need to be deleted from the range of practical options unless the teachers are willing to pay some of these costs or use their own time. Another problem with teacher development is whether to try to impact with everyone or whether to work with people who are keen to move. On the one hand the law of diminishing returns suggests that it would be more cost effective to improve a large number by a small amount rather than a small number by a large amount and one should start with those that need lots of improvement. On the other hand we know that you can lead a horse to water but you can't make them drink. Teachers guides do touch everybody, the take-up is not guaranteed but even for teachers who will not publicly move they may have some small effect. Some possibilities for the future. Apart from specific guides schools need to encourage the professional growth of teachers by subscribing to other professional reading such as journals and books and encourage the sharing of papers obtained by teachers who attend conferences, courses, or study programmes. With advances in technology a number of new options for postal models are emerging and some experimentation is occurring with these overseas. These include the use of videos (that provide excellent modelling of new strategies) and e-mail and bulletin boards that mean that dialogue, feedback and support are all potentially available to even remote schools that wish to participate in these activities. Further costing and research needs to be done with these technological innovations to see whether their potential is cost effective. Further research needs to be done on effectiveness but I feel strongly that this needs to be considered along with the practical issues of cost. It is possible, indeed probable that long-term effectiveness in terms of changes in teacher behaviour and in students outcomes are to hard to measure and are affected by so many variables that we will need to use a series of performance indicators as substitutes for measures of effectiveness. Conclusions I believe that problems to do with the lack of available expertise , the costs associated with remote schools, and the general inaccessibility of many professional development activities mean that for some time teachers guides or some other form of postal model may need to be supported if changes in schools are wanted. On the other hand, these posted components need to be viewed as only one component of development projects and schools or local networks need to build groups to use and support the use of the ideas from these components. I believe that some postal materials need to be produced and distributed to all schools. This is only likely to be done if support is provided from the centre but in many instances seeding finance rather than full funding may be all that is needed to encourage groups to produce material. References Apple, Michael W. and Jungck Susan (1992) You DonÕt Have to be a Teacher to Teach This Unit: Teaching Technology and Control in the Classroom, in Hargreaves, Andy & Fullan Michael G. (1992) Understanding Teacher Development, London/NY: Cassell/Teachers College Press, p20-42 Begg, A J C (1992) Professional Development: designing programmes for high school mathematics teachers. (Draft Teachers Guide), Centre for Science and Mathematics Education, University of Waikato, Hamilton Begg, Andy (1992b) Postal Models for Teacher Development, a paper presented at a "Conversation" at the Centre for Science and Mathematics Education Research, University of Waikato, 1 May 1992 Begg, A J C (1991) Professional Development of High School Mathematics Teachers: Research Report #1 (A Report to the Research and Statistics Division of the Ministry of Education), Centre for Science and Mathematics Education, University of Waikato, Hamilton Bell B F & Pearson J D (in press) Learning in Science Project: Teacher Development - Final Report Hamilton, Centre for Science and Mathematics Education Research Bolam, Raymond (1987) What is Effective INSET? in Professional Development and INSET: Proceedings of the 1987 NFER Members Conference, National Foundation for Educational Research, p38-53 Clarke, Christopher M (1992) Teachers as Designers in Self-directed professional Development, in Hargreaves, Andy & Fullan Michael G. (1992) Understanding Teacher Development, London/NY: Cassell/Teachers College Press, p 75-84 Department of Education (1988) Administering for Excellence (Report of the Task Force to Review Education Administration, chaired by B Picot) Wellington: Dept of Education Fullan, Michael G. with Stiegelbauer, Suzanne (1991) The New Meaning of Educational Change, NY: Teachers College Press.(2nd edition, first published as Fullan (1982) The Meaning of Educational Change) Guskey, Thomas R. (1986) Staff Development and the Process of Teacher Change, in Educational Researcher, 15(5) May 1986, p 5-12 Hargreaves, Andy & Fullan Michael G (eds) (1992) Understanding Teacher Development, London/NY: Cassell/Teachers College Press Jackson, Philip EW. (1992) Helping Teachers Develop, in Hargreaves, Andy & Fullan Michael G. (1992) Understanding Teacher Development, London/NY: Cassell/Teachers College Press, p62 - 74 Joyce, Bruce R and Showers, Beverly (1980) Improving inservice training: The messages of research, Educational Leadership, 37 (5), February 1980, p 379-85 Oberg, Antoinette and Underwood, Susan (1989) Facilitating Teacher Self- development: Reflections on Experience. Paper presented at (xxxxx see footnote p 162), Reprinted in Hargreaves, Andy & Fullan Michael G. (1992) Understanding Teacher Development, London/NY: Cassell/Teachers College Press, p162-177 Owen, John; Johnson, Neville; Clarke, Doug; Lovitt, Charles & Morony, Will (1988) Guidelines for consultants and curriculum leaders, Canberra: Curriculum Development Centre, (MCTP = The Mathematics Curriculum and teaching Program) Raymond, Danielle; Butt, Richard and Townsend, David (1992). Contexts for Teacher Development: Insights from TeachersÕ Stories, in Hargreaves, Andy & Fullan Michael G. (1992) Understanding Teacher Development, London/NY: Cassell/Teachers College Press, p 143-161. Robertson, Heather-Jane (1992) Teacher Development and Gender Equity, in Hargreaves, Andy & Fullan Michael G. (1992) Understanding Teacher Development, London/NY: Cassell/Teachers College Press, p43-61 Thiessen, Dennis (1992) Classroom-based Teacher Development, in Hargreaves, Andy & Fullan Michael G. (1992) Understanding Teacher Development, London/NY: Cassell/Teachers College Press, p85-109 …y{>|H Jaworski, Barbara (chair)(1991) Develop Your Teaching, a professional development pack for mathematics Ð and other Ð teachers prepared by the "Teacher-centred Inservice in Mathematics Education" subcommittee of the Mathematical Association, Cheltenham: The Mathematical Association and Stanley Thornes (Publishers) Ltdto ages and disadvantages but someon and need to be consideredschools and Onewhich is to the fore n of responsibility ismathematics dissemination stage of the developments haveÿ the issuing of textbooks whichThis is not new as most curriculum projects in the past have been done without adequate teacher support. New Zealand Anr d-i-y ramification is that professional associations such as the aretaking and teacher developmentad expected or planned for this but it should be regarded favourably.In the resource area, w,. Aourso book In New Zealand economic Need to reflect on the interrelatedness between curriculum and teacher development Need to plan opment to teachers themselves. adult development is voluntaryol leads to making more use of - each teacher is unique , 1992ators that influence teacher development and it is probable that they also influence curriculum development (3 years for a major change)(standing the change process, , adequate resources, , modelling of new skills, reflection and feedback, and support and assistance) esearch he was associated with. - new ideasWhere do ideas come from advisers, reflection on action Expertise leads to design solutions, no new input leads to efficiency solutions , courses, or study programmes. - modelswhere do we see models action research (invent own) prof reading -trials and practiceow can teacher trial & practice autonomy of teachers negotiate with colleagues - feedback and reflection - support and assistancesupport yourself need opportunities to reflect journal reflection ­ ­ tiveness and cost effectivenesss wrt student learning outcomes teacher behaviour is it going to be it is spread over time so that planning and develop ownershipng/practice of new skills, and Some models- - role of - authority or - Andro-centredness suggests:d within a particular framework¥ competitioncal power¥ dominance¥ conflict¥ declarations of certaintynfident reliance on rationalitytifiable valued over subjective - deficits or strengthsneeds appraisal - - Reflecting on 2) discusses - way of know how but stresses reflection t episodes, about anecdotes - emerging technologyOther ??Jaworski (1991) writes of the anecdoting process as a means of using teacher experiences to draw out underlying patterns and teachers' common concerns. what strengths can we build on. road is as good as another.Óard (make the familiar strange)5. - ask for supportpect yourself - you deserve it)t is guided by five conditions:ning for science and technology- shared power- experiences in the classroomints (x)ther teachers or with students.room-based teacher development.fensible, socially justifiable.a: ucation, University of Waikato Hamilton: , Kia ora katoa, nga mihi n - Greeting from New Zealand. Resource DDDDxt of science education (BellDD-I-Y AAreas Needing Afocus on ling approaches and changingrather thachanging directlyÿÿ If these five components are attended to by the d-i-y developers then we will have a better system than the traditional one, although it would have been possible to enhance the traditional approach by giving these same components attention too.CE- costsTwo types of costs exist these are: (that are borne by) such as- the costs of teacher relief;-ise;- travel costs;- cost of resources; and - (t) such as:- ime given over for development;-- effectivenessVirtually nocost is availableM and it does not analyze Policy decisions need information on effectiveness and with no data available one reasonable alternative isbased on whether or not a project:- has an input of new ideas;- ;involves teachers;- s by the participants;provides opportunitiesng/practice of new skills;- providesreflection; and- gives participants and assistance-c and include costs to the teacher as these extra costs will certainly be considered by prospective participants when they are invited to join a projectA furSome Further FactorsA number of other factors that influence professional development need to be considered, these include learning theory, reflection, the role of assessment, strengths or deficits, gender and culture, role of the teacher, and emerging technology. learning theorythe the role of the teacherIs aParadigm S NeededRobinson (1989) speaks of the traditional management model for professional development and signals a prefeence for an empowerment model. Such an empowerment model would differ from the management model in a number of important ways that are summarised in this table that I have modified from Robinson's analysis. Aspect of Change Management Paradigm Empowerment Paradigm Focus change choiceSource experts teachersRole of outsider change agent choice agentView of outsider expert / salesperson facilitator / colleague Starting point deficits teachers strengthsView of teacher deficient professional Control outside agents teachers Role of teacher beginner decision makerIndicator of success adoption of new idea teachers decision making|Expectation immediate adoption gradual development Method pressure for change support to change Outcome apparent (but superficial) gradual refinement of change, followed by present practice, and reversion when pressure possibly adoption of is removed new practices. Rice (1992) takes this a little further and stresses the need for introspection, reflection and self direction as the three identifiable behaviours needed in the promotion of a professional development ethos. In the d-i-y model I would think we need a new "autonomy" paradigm. The empowerment model provides a good stepping stone and Rice's three behaviours are admirable, but the reliance on outsiders for expertise, facilitative skills, and for support is unlikely to be practical. Changing from d-i-yourself to d-i-yourselves which suggests networking between like- minded people is likely to be the extent of outside assistance. (ed) Rice, Mary (1992) Towards a Professional Development Ethos, paper presented at the 15th Annual Conference of the Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia, University of western Sydney, July 1992 Robinson, Ian (1989) The Empowerment Paradigm for the Professional Development of Teachers of Mathematics, in Ellerton, Nerida F & Clements, M A (Ken) (eds) (1989) School Mathematics: The Challenge to Change, Geelong: Deakin University. and teacher development need to be viewed as two parts of a complex process which does not start with one and finish with the other but is much more intertwined. The development process has often been viewed as a stop-start process or a project-centred one, it makes more sense to see development as a natural growth process which goes on regardless, is subject to growth spurts, but is never at rest. Both curriculum and teacher development have often been () but the focus now is more on change in teaching (how it is taught). This is not to say that teachers are not concerned about student learning outcomes but rather that they wish to focus on the variable that they have most control of. Within the development activities the focus might be on the mathematicson or on, the emphasis usually being decided by the controller of the finance. Thus a central administration is likely to focus on the school and the subject, a improvementa ead f epartmentthe , and the individual teachers personal growth is often neglected. WTakingfurther suggestse empowerment model provides atowards this would be assumed in it, indeed the idea of self-direction nearly encompasses the model. The further step is the lack of or. This lack of reliance is partly due to the pragmatic difficulties of all having assistance available, but it is also based on the view of the teacher as a professional, an expert, and an independent person. Some teachers may still feel a need for outside assistance, especially during the move from one paradigm to the other, and ca approach to aone whichprovide such help. The Processnt of a national curriculum is a natural growth process whichs subject to growth spurts road is as good as another.Ó curriculum documents (syllabuses and frameworks) ournals (professional reading) advisers, reflection on action perhaps if experts are needed then teachers must become the experts a change is learning and Fullan & Stiegelbauer (1991) stress the importance of understanding the theory of change ridea teachers decision making takes this and and from time to time responsibility for mathematicse-day long "teacher- only-days".Tenvironment, the advisory service is moving to user-pay, nsibility and schoolsonal development opportunities. restract system. The 60% isexistedle now all costs are up front. This contract systems current political initiatives and mathematics (luckily)is currentlyit is unlikelyprimary and secondary schools will be touched by these contracts. The "fast track "not a development process, it is merely an approximate documentation of the present state of the art in a new format to satisfy politicians.areshould not be but should be seenCwith mathematics eaching (how the subjectand . T'ten neglected even though personal development that moves teachers towards congruence between their roles as person and as teacher is professional development.The development process nsbe ned. A cis not necessarily needed, indeed it may well be counterproductive, but a long term (perhaps )is desirable. To get anywhere , and the oldroad is as good as another is worth noting. Clarke (1992) says that "" and he suggests that "opment to teachers themselves (because) adult development is voluntary, leads to making more use of each teacher is unique, and" fits with the ideas of Clarke andempowers teachershemBolam'sclude the necessary components. This analysis fits with . If we accept this? In the past they have often come from outsiders but other sources such as ther schools, teachers guides and, and teachers are all sources.One view in favour of outside experts was that they lead (a change in what was happening) while (doing the old things more efficiently). The idea that teachers as professionals become experts and their activity will bring them in contact with new ideas seems to have been ignored.Teachers can of new skills and stragegies by networking with colleagues or by being involved in projects. They by networking with colleagues, , or by obtaining videos that demonstrate the practiceÿ also see models secondhand by reading essional journals and by listening at .THave usually only contained new ideas but for changes in practice couldhe modelling. What opportunities exist fors to trial and new strategies? One can negotiate with colleagues and to trial and practice new strategies, and one has considerable as a teacher to try out things within the classroom without seeking permission. Probably the most important collaborators in such trialling are the students. Trialling is likely to lead slowly to ain will start to change after one has reflected-on-action and decided what the pros and cons of the trial are.How do teachers get feedback? A who is willing to watch and provide feedback or to act as a sounding board is useful. Another way is by listening carefully to the feedback from students. Self initiated feedback in terms of reflections on action is athird way and numerous strategies such as using journals provide ways of doing this. s and teachers' common concerns and this is also related to getting to a basic understanding of what is happening.The assistance and support that are often needed are at three levels Ð the administrative, the professional and the personal level. The most important notion is to when you want it. The same is true of assistance. Traditionally most of our professional development activities have been individualistic but mutual support can be gained by taking a collegial approach either with colleagues from within the school or through networks of teachers beyond the school. All the above To measure cost-effectiveness it is important to have a measure of the two separate components. Costs are comparatively easy to obtain although a decision needs to be made as to whether one includes all the costs or only the costs that the organisation has to bear. s is more difficult, while improved student learning outcomes are the purpose of most development activities, teacher behaviour what teachers usually focus on, and as some measure of effectiveness is needed before policy decisions are made, the measure will probably be based on whether the development activity includes the necessary.ed on whether or not a project-Oapproach might be to start withsome arbitrary figure (say 1he potential effectiveness of an activity then multiply it by a series of "guessed" multipliers to represent the inclusion of the various factors. For example a the potential effectiveness of a week long course might be doubled if it is spread over a term with opportunities for trialling and practice between sessions. It might be multiplied by a further 1.5 if all the mangement and focus issues are decided upon by the participants, and so on. The shift from behaviourism to which is affecting our view of mathematics education does not seem to be having the same effect on teacher development or curriculum development. The of teachers and the interests and areas of enquiry that they identify should be the subject of development activities and self-assessment should be stressed in the evaluation. Both of these aspects suggest the autonomy of the learner needs to be given more emphasis. Teacher adult and the processes involved. This understanding at the meta- level suggests another aspect of constructivism. In curriculum development too, constructivism needs to be given more credence as we move away from a curriculum that defines the topic in behaviouristic goals.IÉ how we came to be that way Raymond, Butt & Townsend, 1992). The nt for growth (into the future) (Oberg & Underwood, 1989). These quotes suggest the initial stage where reflection is needed to establish a plan and the later review stages where plans are modified.Ling in one'sard and making the familiar strange is one way of considering situations from other people's points of view and is another technique of relection that helps one see development activities in a fuller way.Journal writing is a third way of aiding reflection although it takes time as one moves through the s that are outlined by ( view, 2) stresses reflection and suggestst episodes, about anecdotes and then locating thea larger setting i.e. articulatingnas in left/right). The includingiated resource development, andchool have been developed on a) model with very little research being done,dissemination stage ofd the issuing of resourceared on the assumption that idence in mathematics and ed abut unfortunately it has notp. The hypothesis had- curriculum was possible, and-uggestealand a "National Curriculum" wa model - no r because there was absolutely no researchwhat is called The expectation of government walopment will ensure that the new, curriculum projectskely to have a minimal effect andtheis that without compensatory fundssbook long run alternative more schools willmove to approaches that are not has also beenThe role of the mathematics asociations and similar networks is growing to fill the void.irThereally jectttempt to document Ignoring the national curriculum and looking at criculum and teacher development, one seesand finish with the other but involves both in an wayIdeally development does not start and stop development (Begg, 1991). As on the school and the subject,is concerned withThe of t alan important part of and as for a traveller, A nusually required as teachers are aware of what they want to develop and an appraisal may br threatening and & Stiegelbauer;. These include: erstanding the change process, , - adequate resources, th respect tot whether a central system or aing matrix as the result ofthi& Stiegelbauer teacher development programme. N? In the past they have oftenprofessional reading have new ideas that may come intohas oftenModelling new stategies of new skills and stratby networkingaction researchviewcan also gain insights by reading traditionallybut easily provide more details about the way that strategies can be implementedTTheyn negotiate with colleagues andial and practice new strategieshave to try out things T F as a sounding board is useful and an alternativeasking for and through reflectionnotherof getting feedback exist forJournal writing is one aid to reflection. 2)SApersonal, professional and . Traditionally most staff Thescanin some form by peopleby ithprecludfromby with atypicalby those with the common needs that areIf these tional approach by giving theseCost and CTwo- system costs and teacher costs. and include the costs of: teacher relief, , travel, and and include thecost of and the costs of EConsiderable rexists about the components needed in development activities but little compares the effectiveness of the models.ost and do in performance of students comparative ed on whether or not a project,,, by the participants, ng/practice of new skills,reflection; andanclusion of the various factors. For exampleweek-adecisions not reliable but they give an insight into the potential come more appropriate whenccurate measures wereCConsiderable ra comparion of of development is lacking of ivities has been doneeslook atthe no data available oneis obtained by dividing the measure of effectiveness byItbothunderstandÿ as these associated with cost effectiveness argetchangTeturns suggests that it would easierthe L and this suggests a building on strengths rather than weaknesses which is not the traditional view. Gailraith (1991) and Begg(1991b) have highlighted the difficulties of a curriculum that is meant be taught from a constructivist perspective and assessment goals that are written in behavioral terms. According to Apple and Jungck (1992) the ping the teacher and the student. This change in focus for assessment is needed to develop a consistent theory for learning, teaching, curriculum, and assessment.G(1992) T Self ass¥ planning E a Begg, Andy (1991b) Assessment and Constructivism, a paper presented at the ICMI study conference on Assessment in Mathematics Education and its Effects, Spain, April 1991Gailbraith, P (1991) Paradigms, Problems and Assessment: Some ideological implications, a paper presented at the annual conference of the Mathematics Education Rresearch Group of Australasia, Perth, July 1991 that staff development has a as it is dominated by an androcentric perspective. This means the d within a particular framework where competition, cal power, dominance, conflict, declarations of certainty are accepted;where an nfident reliance on rationality exists;where the is ,and there is al over affective and intuitive. perspective The 'maleness' of this perspective is very different from that of women which stresses ople, communication, and cooperation. She suggests that the apparent of development activities actually the f the male paradigm, prevents theof aaOthat influenceThe shiftwhich is affecting or curriculum developmenthe learner andtarting point forÐthe traditional deficit model. Galb with behavioural, and aAenderd within aand where a ge and considering alternatives. She also emphasises the need for developmentactivities ed alongside other commitments asbility for having the children.A d-i-y approach to development activities should be ,ÿxy as the decisions would be made by women but in the initial stages it may be important to have opportunities for decision-making without men present as their outlook is likely to continue to emphasise the androcentric view.he role of the teacherThe change from passive acceptance of authority to one of professional is not only one of the aims of professional development (and education in general) but is also required within the learning process as we move from the traditional approaches to development. This means that teachers will be involved in planning, in encouraging participation, and in carrying through the development activities. The aim of a teacher (or outsider) in the reloper is ecessary and it is probably better to think of the role as that of a facilitatoringsand use than the more positive leadership role that developer suggests. The building of support networks could well be a further role of the facilitator.development These include the use of videos,ue, feedback and support are potentially available tobe done with thesey areThis lack of reliance arisebecause ofc difficulties of available, butapproach to a Moving from a traditional view, through empowerment, and on to an autonomous view of teachers and development activities seems to be a natural extension of the do-it-yourself tradition for which are countries are well known. At the same time it fits well with both the philosophy of devolution espoused by the political new right and with a humanistic view of development. Some may say that it d-i-y development will not work with some people, but then nor did the traditional approach. Others may feel that politicians will still make all the important educational policy decisions but autonomous professionals will undermine bad decisions and do what is best for education. Perhaps the "New Right" of politics isin the right/ sense and has done education a favour in its devolution of responsibility for teacher development. Gancurriculum (Ministry of Education, 1992)s produced, and sent out. This wa example of Ministry of Education (1992) Mathematics in the National Curriculum Ð Draft. Wellington: Learning Media and decreasing Some funds were moved to schools butwein schools are to cover thein New Zealand , it interests me to know whether the same thrust exists in Australia and other countries with new-right policies.NZ ateacher development. I would anticipatea similar thrustin ) model withdissemination developmentss Ifhad been aprojecttmight have evidenceswould have hadraft NCprofessional developmentdurg (and perhaps claim a large D)but the resources provided mean that teachers of mathematics in primary and secondary schools will receive on average only three days of development time. Thus the teacher development willprogressively wholeheartedly which may in fact be a reasonable way for it to go ,before restructuring, was mainlywith some initiatives starting at a regional level.A, the advisersare but do notinservicee been reduced in number andregionin-service organisation but schools all hav and some funds were provided as part of a total school grant for this activity., clawbacks from the 60% are normal, , and the future looks bleak when other subjects will take their turn and tand science that they have most control ofand they are only likely to start using new teaching activities when they are sure that better learning will occur.appraisal may be this with minorsourceof math, pay more to participatein-service schools istry claims to have moved an inflated value as had many hidden costsswbacks from the 60% are normal,not F, it conly be an two parts of a, and ideallyi It is often difficult to distinguish between some of these components, for example sharing sessions provide an opportunity to receive feedback, to reflect, to gain support, and to be given assistance. 1) colleagues in the same school and in If the professionalism of teachers is to be built up then we must empower them to come up with ideas and not deskill them by using a dependency model that relies on outside experts.2) rby visiting each others' classrooms, When teachers discuss ideas and what they have seen, make a commitment to try something, come together to share experiences, and from this sharing develop confidence, we find that modelling is occurring and is being taken further to incorporate aspects of the other components.3) Related to the modelling of kills and s is their trialling (practice). Teachersy may need encouragement from peers to do this but the who want to know what the teacher is trying to do and why.4) eedback, and supporta sounding board is useful. ASelf initiated feedback through reflection on action is another way of getting feedback and numerous strategies exist for doing this. Journal writing is one aid to reflection. Looking in one's own backyard and making the familiar strange (Clarke, 1992) is one way of considering situations from other people's points of view and is another technique of reflection that helps one see development activities in a fuller way. Jaworski (1991) writes of the 'anecdoting' process as a means of using teacher experiences to draw out underlying patterns and teachers' common concerns and this is also related to getting to a basic understanding of what is happening. Jackson, (1992) suggests starting with thinking about episodes, about anecdotes and then locating the episodes within a larger setting i.e. articulating the context. Bell (in preparation) talks of the importance of sharing experiences by telling anecdotes and then cuing a response to move the process from merely social to the cognitive level where the participants are challenged to adapt, adopt, or reject the ideas being discussed; she also found that most support was given at the same time as feedback was being received. Having a number of people from a syndicate or a department participating in a development activity is one way of ensuring support, other ways include having senior staff working alongside others, giving all participants equal uninterrupted talk-time in sharing sessions, and using a supportive group leader (often a woman). 5) AssistanceAssistance (like support) is often needed at three levels Ð personal, professional and administrative. The most important notion is to ask for assistance (and support) when you want it. Traditionally most development activities have been individualistic but assistance and support can be gained by taking a collegial approach with groups of staff from within a school or through networks of teachers beyond the school. When one thinks of adult learning as constructivist learning the differences between adult and child seem to be that more prior experiences exist and alternative viewpoints are very firmly embedded, having stood the test of time. Role of colleagues heirarchical peersRole of students nil collaborators I would suggest that the we need to move from empowerment to Bell B F (ed) (1993, in preparation) I know about LISP but how do I put it into practice, (Final report of the LISP Teacher Development Project), Hamilton: CSMER, University of Waikato The Mathematics Curriculum and Tsassociations 19921993, in preparationithierarchical Apple, Michael W. and Jungck Susan (1992) You DonÕt Have to be a Teacher to Teach This Unit: Teaching Technology and Control in the Classroom, in Hargreaves, Andy and Fullan Michael G. (1992) Understanding Teacher Development, London/New York: Cassell/Teachers College Press, (p20 - 42)Prepared as part oft