Learning to become a teacher: An analysis of student teachers' perspectives on teaching and their developing craft knowledge. Conners, R., Nettle, E., and Placing, K. School of Teacher Education, University of New South Wales ___________________________________________________________ The majority of students in New South Wales who enter teacher training institutions to become primary school teachers have been selected on their Higher School Certificate aggregates. Very little else is known about these students. Teacher educators point out in educational psychology courses and teaching skills courses that for effective teaching and learning to take place, it is important to gather a variety of background information about one's students. In relation to teacher education students, teacher educators should be interested in what knowledge they bring to their programs of study. This knowledge could include knowledge of self, knowledge of the effective teacher as a person, knowledge of the teacher's role which includes instruction and subject matter knowledge and knowledge in the form of their attitudes, values and beliefs about teaching. Just as Elbaz (1983) argues for experienced teachers that it is important to understand teachers' practical knowledge " ... to make possible a fuller use of the human resources which teachers bring to their work" p.6, one can also argue that to develop teacher trainees to their fullest potential it is necesary to understand the knowledge that they bring to their teacher education programs. One way to focus upon the knowledge of student teachers is to investigate their thinking. Research into teacher thinking and specifically student teacher thinking is little more than a decade old (Clark and Peterson, 1986). The research during the past decade has investigated teacher thinking in two interrelated areas. The first area is that of teacher thought processes such as planning, judgement, preactive decision making and reflection. The second area is the thought structures of the teacher which include the knowledge, beliefs, attitudes, implicit theories, principles and expectations, stored as schema in the mind of the teacher or student teacher. The literature on student teacher thinking is as yet quite small. A number of studies have focussed upon student thinking during the practicum and have explored how their thinking is influenced by practical experiences (Bolin, 1988; Bolin, 1990; Bunting, 1988; Carter et al, 1987; Hollingsworth, 1989; Johnson, 1989 and Robson and Symington, 1987). A handful of studies, for example, Carter et al (1987) have investigated the differences in information processing exhibited by novice, postulant and expert teachers. In this study, the researchers found that there were differences on nine dimensions on how the three groups perceived and set about solving problems. A number of studies for example, Goodman (1988) and Lortie (1975) have reported upon the socializing effects of school experiences upon the student teacher. Lortie (1975) has argued that the 'silent apprenticeship' of observation during many years as primary and secondary students was a more important influence on the perspectives of beginning teachers than was their formal teacher education. There have been, however, few studies that have explored how students develop personal perspectives on teaching. Several studies have explored this area in Australia. Carbines et al (1988) investigated the nature of significant learning experiences that student teachers had prior to their entry to a teacher education program. Findings from the study indicated that the majority of significant experiences was of a cognitive nature, had affective outcomes and occurred out of school. While the outcomes of most learning experiences were viewed as positive by the students, they also tended to view in-school significant learning experiences as being more negative. Calderhead and Robson (1988) explored the nature of the knowledge about teaching and learning held by twelve first year primary BEd students and how this knowledge developed during the students' course. The study revealed that there were a number of qualitative differences in the images described by the students. A third study in this area is by Robson and Symington (1987) who undertook a longitudinal study which examined the understandings about teaching and learning processes which students bring to a teacher education program and the ways those understandings influence the teaching process. Robson and Symington found that student teachers bring to a teacher education program developed ideas about the role of the teacher and that their views were strongly influenced by previous negative experiences at schools. This finding is in accord with that of Carbines et al (1988). These studies have provided some useful information on the knowledge of teachers and teaching that student teachers bring to a teacher education program. However, there is still a dearth of research information in this area. The literature on teacher education indicates there are few longitudinal studies that have gathered from pre-program students, information on their knowledge about teaching and learning and then explored the students' cognitive development during a three year pre-service teacher education program and during their first year of teaching. Calderhead (1981, 1988) and Goodman (1988) have pointed out that teacher educators need to know more about the thinking of teacher education students rather than concentrating upon their overt behaviour if teacher education programs are to more effectively select, educate and lay the basis for retaining teachers in the teaching service. Calderhead (1988) points out that more needs to be known about the values and beliefs student teachers hold, and how they are formed, because beliefs and values directly influence 'what student teachers extract from their pre-service training and the kind of teacher they become in the classroom.' (p.6) Purposes of the Paper This paper has three major purposes. It first of all describes the knowledge of teachers and teaching that student teachers bring to a teacher education program. In doing so it explores the characteristics of "good teachers" that student teachers consider important and the knowledge they have of the teacher's role. The paper specifically explores student teachers' views on instructional processes and their understanding of the subject matter that would be important to teach in primary schools. The second major purpose of the paper is to explore the positive and negative experiences, especially those relating to previous schooling that have influenced students' perspectives on teaching. The third major purpose of this paper is to describe the development of the student teachers' craft knowledge and to illustrate how this craft knowledge is used in practice. Methodology Subjects Before lectures commenced in a primary teacher education program twelve students were randomly selected from a population of 136 first year students. The twelve subjects consisted of ten female and two male students. However, after three weeks one male subject resigned from the teacher education program and was not replaced in the project. Data Gathering Procedures A semi-structured pre-program interview was used to gather student teacher thoughts concerning teaching. The focus questions in the interview session that are relevant to this paper include: (i) Would you describe the kind of teacher you would like to be? (Probing questions were used to ascertain the skills, attitudes and knowledge the students considered important). (ii) Could you describe two significant incidents/experiences in your life that you consider influenced your view of teaching? (Probing questions were used to ascertain the nature of the incident/experience, the time, location, personnel involved, whether it was positive or negative and the outcome of the incident/experience ). (iii) When you think about yourself teaching, what subjects or activities would you most like to teach? (iv) Are there any subjects or activities you would not like to teach? The interviews took approximately forty-five minutes, were audiotaped and then transcribed. Micro-lessons and Stimulated Recall Interviews The student teachers planned and taught three micro-lessons (two lessons were on science topics and one was a free choice topic) to pupils from nearby schools. The lessons were videotaped and shortly after the lesson (no longer than twenty-four hours) the students were involved in stimulated recall interviews. The interviews took between thirty and forty-five minutes, were semi-structured, and focussed upon how/why the lesson was commenced and concluded, why the particular content was chosen, whether the objects of the lesson were achieved, aspects of the lesson with which the student was pleased/displeased and how successfully the teaching skill under focus was implemented. During the interview session both the interviewer and student teacher stopped the videotape at stimulus points. After the interview tapes were transcribed they were analysed using a content analysis procedure called 'sieve analysis'. This procedure involved reading each transcript segment by segment and recording each reference made to a particular variable. For example, the transcripts were analysed to gather all references to student teachers' descriptions of the personal qualities, skills,attitudes and knowledge that a "good teacher" should possess. THE FINDINGS Student Teachers' Pre-Program Knowledge of Teaching The data are discussed in relation to the student's understandings of the qualities and characteristics they considered important for effective teachers to possess and how the teacher should enact his/her teaching role. The data are summarised in Table 1. The eleven students all had views on the qualities and characteristics they considered important for effective teachers to possess. There was wide variation in the number of characteristics described with Helen for example considering two characteristics that indicated the teacher should be readily approachable and be liked by the pupils while Linda described eleven characteristics that presented a humanistic profile of a teacher who was liked by the pupils, was a good friend to them, was trusted by the pupils, was patient, tolerant and at the same time a good leader who led by example, was well organized, and was respected by the community. TABLE 1 STUDENT TEACHERS' PRE-PROGRAM KNOWLEDGE OF TEACHING Teacher as Knowledge of Teacher Role Name a Person (Instructional) (Subject Matter) Dale Friendly Important to have pupils The basics Readily approachable understand lesson content Art, craft, drama Pupils can readily relate Give pupils confidence and Patience develop self-esteem Sense of humour Teach pupils differently Be positive Understand children's behaviour Communicate well Plan well Use plenty of activities Have a bright classroom Helen Have pupils like you Be able to get pupils to listen Have mastery of Readily approachable to you subject matter Get them to understand what knowledge you are saying To have discipline Have pupils form their own views Question pupils in different ways Get pupils to learn by doing it themselves. The pupils need relaxed environment Julie Care for individual pupils Be up-to-date with teaching Social Studies, Patience methods Sport, Art, Craft Have pupils like you Make classes interesting Relate to the pupils Sam Friendly Have good oral English, Art. Know Have pupils like you communication skills as much as possible Avoid being an authority Be able to discipline about everything figure competently Andrea Have patience Be able to discipline pupils Reading, Spelling Don't pick on children Be prepared to help pupils Social Studies with out-of-school problems as well as school problems Jane Pupils can readily relate to Help children to become Knowing the Be a good listener independent.. syllabus what you Be able to get along with Make the class interesting are teaching pupils, a person who is English, Maths not too strict. Love working Dictation, Arts, with children. Someone who Crafts. is happy with their work. Sara Be open-minded Gain co-operationof pupils Art, Craft, English Be a good listener Be able to communicate Social Studies Be considerate Be able to give pupils 'You can learn a Be able to understand correct knowledge lot from the kids pupils Help them if they are in their art '- how Gain co-operation of pupils trouble they feel Allison Have a positive attitude Have mastery of subject The basics, Moral Somebody the children can matter. Use a lot of resource Studies, Aboriginal relate to. material. Use research at sixth Studies, Drama Someone the pupil's can class level. Use projects trust. Not a 'high-tech' Create a positive attitude in figure. Friendly, really close the class. Get children to to the students. Treat pupils make up their own minds equally. about what they think. Be enthusiastic Mary An outgoing person Important to help pupils Need to teach Trusting and confident to understand lesson content about the Patience Give them skills so they can environment Never humiliate anyone become independent learners Social Studies Important to observe and Art, Craft learn from pupils English, Maths Linda Be a good leader of Have lessons totally Be able to teach everybody. Be a good orgnanised.Be always well everything in the friend. Be liked and prepared.Do not pick upon curriculum trusted by the pupils. students. with an emphasis Someone pupils can Do not let negative feelings on Maths and readily relate to. Well show towards students English. Current organised. Be able to lead The teacher has to be able issues, moral issues by example. Patience, to discipline and the environment tolerance. Be confident Be able to communicate well Respected by the community. Nola Have leadership qualities Make sure you are prepared The basics like and confidence. Have Use variety in your teaching English, Maths, feeling for the children. Be Have control over the class Science, Environ- able to organize well. Be Need for an effective mental Studies. able to listen to pupils learning environment Craft and Drama. Care for the children and Be able to communicate their needs. Be prepared to learn from children In summarizing the qualities the students considered important, the data suggest that almost all student teachers wanted to see themselves perceived as friendly, be considered readily approachable and to have pupils like them. Good interpersonal relationships were seen as a key component of the desired teacher image. Other personal qualities considered important included having patience, a sense of humour and being trustworthy, enthusiastic and confident. Data were gathered on two dimensions of the teacher's role, namely knowledge of instructional processes and knowledge of subject matter. The students all had some views on how the teaching role should be enacted. They varied widely in complexity as well as in the number of instructional variables the students considered important, with some students considering as few as two instructional variables and some eight variables. Dale for example, presented a reasonably comprehensive description of important elements in the instructional process. She recognized the influence of an attractive, motivating learning environment, the importance of developing both cognitive and affective behaviours of pupils and the importance of taking account of individual differences and the need to individualize instruction. She considered that for effective instruction to take place, the teacher should concentrate upon planning, use a variety of teaching strategies and be an effective communicator. However, while Dale could present this comprehensive description of instruction, Jane had a more limited understanding. She considered only two variables, namely that it was important for the teacher to make the class interesting and help the children become independent. Several themes emerged in the student teachers' perceptions of important variables in the teaching role. One theme was an awareness of the individual as a learner. This involved taking account of individual differences, having pupils become independent learners and developing pupil confidence and self- esteem. A second theme referred to the need for teachers to have mastery of lesson content and be able to have pupils understand the content. A third theme (referred to by five students) was the need to have control in the classroom and be able to discipline competently. The second dimension of the student's knowledge of the teacher's role was concerned with knowledge of subject matter. Students generally had difficulty responding to what they considered was important to be taught in primary schools. Their responses revealed the influences of their own primary school years, the influence of the media with its emphasis upon teaching the basics and preserving the environment as well as their own personal values in relation to subject matter to be taught in the primary school. For example, Nola believed it was important to "get them out into craft and drama, to be able to boost their confidence" while Jane explained, "I'm really interested in getting other activities into the class instead of just the basic .... maths, language .... dictation .... like bringing the arts and crafts into maths." These understandings and knowledge of the teacher's role do not develop in a vacuum. The next sectionof this paper explores some of the significant experiences that students claim have influenced their thinking concerning teaching. Significant Influences upon Student Teachers' Knowledge of Teaching. The second question in the pre-program interview explored significant incidents/experiences that the student teachers considered had influenced their views of teaching. The eleven students recalled and described positive and negative experiences that were generally related to their primary and secondary school years. The experiences of the students are summarized in Table 2. TABLE 2 SIGNIFICANT EXPERIENCES THAT INFLUENCED STUDENT TEACHERS' VIEWS OF TEACHING Description and Source of Experience Name Positive Negative Dale Teacher encouraged participation in sport Teachers who cannot be approached and fostered love of sport. Became for assistance. Student embarrassed confident in sport. Could discuss personal because of perceived strictness of problems with teacher who was considered teacher and concern that she will be a friend. laughed at or made a fool of. (Primary Sports Mistress) (Composite) Helen Variety of experiences were offered including Teachers who are hard to approach student involvement in practical work and for assistance because you cannot exposutre to many different types of music. get close to them. (Secondary - Music Teacher) (Composite) Julie A kind, gentle, patient teacher who was perceived Student felt as though she wasn't by students to be interested in them as individuals. really important because of Teacher developed student from 'average' to 'above exposure to about seven teachers. average'. (Primary - Grade Six Teacher) (Composite - High School) Sam School was made fun. Teachers treated pupils Teachers who could not control the as individuals class and would have head teacher punish students. (Upper Primary Teachers) (Secondary) Andrea Teacher shared personal thoughts with pupils about Teacher was violent, threw chairs, her decisions to become a teacher. Student decided books, rulers, humiliated pupils in then to become a teacher. front of class, reluctant to give assistance to pupils (Primary - Grade Four Teacher) (Primary - Grade Six Teacher) Jane Teacher was friendly to all pupils, school was made Accident when another pupil fell attractive to pupils and pupils made welcome in the vaulting. Frightened student who class. Teacher involved pupils in a variety of would not like to put hereself in the activities. teacher's position. (Primary - Grade Three Teacher) (Grade Six - Physical Education lesson) Sara Teacher was 'really feminine' pupils found it easy Teachers who don't listen to pupils and to relate to her and were not intimidated understand their problems. Teachers who are difficult to approach for assistance and embarrass pupils. (Grade Four) (Composite) Allison Teacher was friendly and treated pupils as individuals Nil fostered a team learning approach with teacher and pupils but also encouraged pupils as independent workers and thinkers. (Primary - Grade Two) (Nil) Mary Teacher was a caring person. Treated pupils as Teacher 'picked on' student in maths individuals. Helped student overcome shyness lessons. Student felt humiliated. and encouraged involvement in sport. (Primary - Grades Five and Six) (Primary - Grade Four) Linda Teacher's lessons were thoroughly prepared, classroom Lessons that are not prepared. was creative and teacher was a friend to the pupils. Teachers who do not have control. (Primary - Grade Two) (Composite) Nola Teachers who are enjoying what they are doing, Pupils with computer experience enjoy working with students, are well prepared, dominated the class and other involve pupils in a variety of activities, and pupils felt neglected by teacher who listen to pupils. ignored them (Composite) (Primary - Computing Classes) Note: Sources of experience are included in brackets. The positive experiences generally focus upon the personal qualities and teaching skills of influential teachers. Personal qualities described include the teacher, being friendly, kind, gentle, approachable, interested in and being prepared to listen to pupils. These are precisely the qualities that the students described in Table 1 that summarized the qualities they considered important for a teacher to possess. Comments from Linda illustrate the type of experience that had an influential effect upon her image of effective teaching. 'My second class teacher I loved, believe it or not - I still see her, and she's an example of how I'd like to be. I mean she was fantastic ... Well her lessons were always prepared, like she had everything worked out... and the room was fantastic, like we had things hanging everywhere and it was just one of those rooms where we walked in and you just felt at home. She was just, oh, such a good friend, as you can tell, I mean I'm still friends with her now and I still keep in contact with her'. Other positive experiences beside interactions with teachers influenced the students' images of effective teaching. These include work experience activities with children and being a member of a School Student Council. All students except Allison, reported negative experiences that had an impact on their perceptions of a good teacher. The negative experiences indicated the teaching behaviours the students wanted to avoid when they became teachers. The negative experiences related to ineffective teaching skills such as poor class control and inadequate lesson preparation as well as undesirable interpersonal relationships which involved humiliating, embarrassing, frightening, not assisting and not listening to pupils. Mary's experience in fourth grade illustrates the negative influence of one teacher's behaviour on her: ... one of my teachers, he liked Maths most, we used to have Maths quizzes and he used to pick on me because I was probably the worst ... I'll always remember that - like humiliated out in the classroom. I was always a shy little thing so it always used to hurt me and I used to come home crying and I said to myself, never humiliate someone.' The influence of this teacher on Mary led to a determination on her part that she would never humiliate or embarrass pupils. Development and Use of Student Teachers' Craft Knowledge. A case student is presented of one student in order to illustrate the influences of her images of teaching upon her teaching behaviour. Case Study of Linda Linda indicated in her pre-program interview that her image of an effective teacher involved the teacher being a friend to pupils, acting as a model they would want to imitate, being a person who was well organized, being a strong disciplinarian but also a person who "made school fun", being a person who is patient and a person who respected the individuality of her pupils. The influences of the dimensions of Linda's image of a good teacher were reflected in the three lessons she taught. The lessons are summarized in Table 3. TABLE 3 SUMMARY OF LINDA'S MICRO-TEACHING LESSONS Lesson 1: The Life Cycle of a Frog (Skill practised was Explaining). The topic was chosen because the student could "remember doing it in third class and thought it was interesting". She also checked with the class teacher on whether the children had previously done the topic. Teacher Behaviour Rationale for Behaviour (i) Asked question about life cycle of frog (i) To ascertain children's knowledge To establish focus of lesson (ii) Drew chart of life cycle of frog (ii) To capture interest and motivate pupils. Has more impact. Emphasises concepts more if pupils can see them. Helps pupils to remember better. (iii) Linked lesson to previous lesson about fish (iii) To reinforce understanding of pupil's knowledge about gills. (iv) Repeated question on differences between (iv) To assist pupils to understand tadpole and frog better (v) Used positive reinforcement "that's right" (v) To encourage pupils to keep participating - "pupils won't ask questions if they don't understand or they're not happy with the teacher" Lesson 2: A Moral Dilemma Based on Prejudice (Skills practised were Questioning and Explaining). The topic was chosen "because I think it's something that happens in schools a lot. I can remember it happening. Also, because if they can relate to it, they're going to be able to speak about it." Teacher Behaviour Rationale for Behaviour (i) Distributed the moral dilemma in a comic (i) Used the overhead so "we could format and used the overhead projector read through it together "and they could look at it and I'd make sure they understood it." (ii) Question on children's understanding of (ii) To indicate whether the pupils were the story. ready to progress to the next stage of the lesson. (iii) Asked a pupil a question. (iii) To clarify his views (iv) Asked a question to ascertain attitudes (iv) To ascertain feelings of the group (v) Ignored pupil's negative response (v) To avoid threatening pupil's self-esteem (vi) Asked question of a quiet pupil (vi) Child was reticent in previous lesson. (vii) Encouraged pupil to continue speaking (vii) Because "X" is really slow ... when she tells a story she takes a long time to express herself. (viii) Asked pupil a probing question. (viii) To get pupil to consider another point of view. (ix) Asked question of group about issues in the (ix) To check whether pupils were moral dilemma aware of the issues occurring in school. Lesson 3: The topic was "Falling Stars" (Skills practised were Lesson Introduction, Closure and Variability). The topic was chosen because "falling stars had always been something that I've liked" and I didn't really know much about them myself, so I thought, 'well, why not?' Have a look at something that I didn't know about. And I searched for ages about what I could do." Teacher Behaviour Rationale for Behaviour (i) Commenced lesson by reading a poem (i) "So that it would trigger some sort of attitude or idea that they had about falling stars themselves" (ii) Showed group an illustration of stars (ii) To interest and motivate pupils and to highlight key concepts. (iii) Told pupils to put hands up if they (iii) To give order and structure to the wanted to speak lesson. (iv) Threatened pupil who was making a noise (iv) To avoid threats to flow of the lesson. (v) Explained about heat of boiling water (v) "To make as many connections with their previous experiences" (vi) Had pupils rub cheeks (vi) To demonstrate heat and friction and assist pupils to understand about concept of friction. (vii) Asked pupils clarifying question on friction (vii) Pupil questions suggested a lack of understanding about concept of friction (viii) Used overhead transparency (viii) To motivate pupils. "The more interesting you can make a lesson through variability, the better it is .... and they're more willing to sort of learn." (ix) Concluded lesson with questions (ix) "Just to test them, to see if they actually did understand what I said" Linda planned her three lessons thoroughly and used a variety of strategies in each of the lessons that revealed her developing craft knowledge. She had already formed views on how pupils learned and each lesson indicated an awareness of the importance of motivating pupils, checking to establish the pupils' knowledge base and what they had learned as a result of the lesson and taking account of individual differences. Linda's views are supported by the education psychology literature (Good and Brophy, 1990). After only approximately ten weeks of a teacher education program, Linda was aware of and practised a variety of psychological learning principles. She consciously: - established the knowledge base of the pupils - used a variety of motivating strategies in each lesson - used concrete materials to assist pupils to learn and remember - used concrete examples to illustrate abstract concepts - used positive reinforcement to encourage pupil involvement - used questions to check on pupil learning - used questions to probe, prompt and clarify - was concerned about cognitive and affective behaviours of pupils - avoided embarrassing pupils so as not to harm their self-esteem - was cognisant of individual pupil differences - related concepts to pupils' experiences to facilitate learning - used discipline/control strategies quickly and when the flow of the lesson was threatened. Summary Statement The data in this study support the findings of Calderhead and Robson (1988) and Hollingsworth (1989) that student teachers bring to their teacher education programs clearly defined views on the behaviours that "good" teachers should exhibit as well as important instructional variables that teachers should utilise. The views of teaching vary from student to student but overall they approximate a humanistic approach to teaching. The findings from the study also suggest that the images of teaching that students bring to their teacher education programs have an influence upon their interactive behaviour when working with pupils. The findings from the study also suggest that even in the first ten weeks of a student teacher's program, exposure to teaching situations provides the milieu for the student's images of teaching to interact with contextual variables to shape the development of the student's craft knowledge of teaching. REFERENCES Bolin, F.S. (1988). 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