susan.edwards@education.monash.edu.au

The development of increasingly user-friendly microcomputers over the past thirty-years has resulted in their increased use in educational settings in general . Early childhood education, as one such setting, has been no exception, with Clements (1999) reporting that "computers are increasingly present in early childhood education settings" . In part, this increased use can be attributed to developments in the evolution of software, such as that characterised by interactive multimedia, which has also been increasingly designed for use in educational settings . However, although such software has been described as amongst the most frequently utilised computer applications in early childhood education , the mere presence and described increase of its use within the setting cannot necessarily be equated with pedagogical success or ease of use on behalf of both the teachers and learners. This is the situation primarily because what is considered to constitute ‘successful use’ has been complicated by the nature of the pedagogical beliefs that inform practice, and therefore the provision of learning experiences in early childhood education.

To large extent, this problem has existed because the implementation of the microcomputer and its accompanying software into the curriculum has been characterised by the need to 'fit' or 'mould' the technology into existing pedagogical beliefs regarding the provision of learning materials for young children. This need to place the technology, and the software required to run it, within existing early childhood pedagogical frameworks has raised questions regarding what should be viewed as appropriate computer-based learning experiences for young children. In other words, it has become increasingly important to determine how the interactive multimedia software can be related to existing conceptions of the early childhood curriculum. One means of exploring this issue lies in determining what practising educators’ perceive to be pedagogically appropriate software, as was the case in this study, which sought to identify those features of interactive multimedia software that early childhood educators perceived as developmentally and pedagogically appropriate from a cognitive-constructivist perspective.

The early childhood curriculum is generally characterised by pedagogical beliefs that are traceable to the primarily Piagetian and Vygotskian cognitive-constructivist theories of child development . Whilst each of these theories explains development in terms of competing cognitive and/or social devices, both explain the development of cognition as a process requiring active engagement in the experiential and/or social world on behalf of the young child. According to each of these theories children are viewed as using play as the vehicle through which the ever-important 'active-engagement' with the external world is manifested. As Johnson, LaMontagne, Elgas & Bauer (1998) explain "although Piaget and Vygotsky differed somewhat in their perspectives and interpretations, they both suggested that play was linked to thought and representational skills" . The 'strong ideological and theoretical' emphasis on the role of play in early childhood education has arisen primarily from the idea that play can be linked to the development of representational thought as articulated by Piaget and Vygotsky.

Such faith in play as the enabling means of cognition is reflected in the early childhood curriculum by the provision of a play-based program that emphasises a pedagogical approach to education whereby children are viewed as needing to engage with manipulative materials in order to support their learning. From a pedagogical perspective, the implications of this view are evidenced in the provision of learning, or play resources that are directly and physically manipulative, allowing children to actively engage with substances that alert them to mathematical and language based concepts. Substances such as sand, paint, blocks and clay are generally considered accepted learning materials that provide children with the opportunity to explore concepts associated with measurement, time, number and space whilst simultaneously conversing with both their peers and adults about their experiences and findings .

The microcomputer has tended to sit somewhat uneasily amongst these early childhood educational staples as a valid and valuable learning tool operating within the boundaries of the constructivist-based pedagogy informing practice . Early concerns voiced by Barnes & Hill (1983) suggested that the abstract and visual nature of the microcomputer would displace those essential 'hands-on' play experiences that were viewed as fundamental in supporting children's development . Later research found these concerns to be misplaced, suggesting that the microcomputer possessed the potential to provide children with learning experiences considered equivalent to those normally associated with more traditional activities . This potential was realised when the microcomputer was re-conceptualised as a ‘learning tool’, as opposed to a 'drill and practice' based teaching machine, as it had previously been viewed. Such potential was further enhanced by the recognition that the computer could most successfully be employed in the early childhood curriculum when utilised in relation to what is known about how children learn in association with principles of early childhood development. As Swick (1989), argued "the effective utilisation of computers in early childhood education must be based on an understanding of how children learn (italics in text)" .

The argument that children’s use of technology in early childhood educational contexts should be informed by developmental theory resulted in the parallel argument suggesting that children would benefit most in an educational sense from software that was ‘developmentally appropriate’. The concept of developmental appropriateness stemmed primarily from the definition of Developmentally Appropriate Practice (DAP) first articulated by the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) in 1986. This definition of DAP argued that young children should be exposed to learning experiences that are congruent with their current levels of development in order to aid and support their learning. Developmental appropriateness was viewed as consisting of two inter-related dimensions, including age and individual appropriateness. Age appropriateness was defined in terms of theory and research that indicated that there "are universal, predictable sequences of growth and change that occur in children in the first 9 years of life . Conversely, individual appropriateness was defined by the idea that, "each child is an unique person with an individual pattern and timing of growth" . At first glance these definitions appear contradictory, with DAP claiming that all children proceed through the same stages of growth, whilst simultaneously emphasising each individual child's pattern and timing of growth. This apparent contradiction is reconciled from the pedagogical perspective by the belief that although predictable stages of growth are argued to exist, that each child will proceed through these stages at his/her own pace. Hence the argument that children should be provided with learning experiences that match or suit their current levels of development.

The first version of DAP, published in 1986, was later updated in 1997 to include a consideration of cultural as well as developmentally appropriate practices in early childhood education. The updated version reflected a more moderate mix of Piagetian and Vygotskian developmentalism than the first document which tended to emphasis Piagetian notions of development .

When applying the concept of developmental appropriateness to the selection of interactive multimedia for young children the first dimension assumes greater emphasis than the second primarily because it is this dimension that articulates a view of cognitive development and learning relative to early childhood education. The extension of this view of development and learning in relation to the provision of interactive multimedia software environments in early childhood education has served to inform the debate regarding young children's use of software. In general, the application of this dimension of DAP to the selection of interactive multimedia software for young children has resulted in the argument that appropriate software can be characterised by a range of features that are viewed as consummate with the main principles of developmental theory.

This argument was consolidated in 1996 with the publication by NAEYC of a position statement regarding appropriate uses of technology with young children. The statement argued that "in evaluating the appropriate use of technology, NAEYC applies principles of developmentally appropriate practice" . Amongst the most important of these principles was the one relating to the belief that "children construct knowledge as a result of dynamic interactions between the individual and the physical and social environments, discovering knowledge through active experimentation" . From a developmentally appropriate perspective, the adoption of this principle meant that cognitive development was positioned as an active process requiring children to "form their own hypotheses and trying them out through physical manipulation and social interaction" . Because development was defined primarily in relation to social and physical interaction, appropriate learning computer based learning experiences were consequently defined in interactive terms, consisting of those experiences that offered children opportunities for exploration, experimentation and manipulation of wide range of electronically-based materials, symbols and ideas. This meant that the developmental appropriateness of interactive multimedia software was considered in relation to its potential to offer children the opportunity to explore, experiment or manipulate a variety of electronic symbols or ideas. Developmentally appropriate software was therefore defined as that which "engages children in creative play, mastery learning, problem solving and conversation" .

The publication by the NAEYC of a position statement relating to appropriate uses of technology with young children was a valuable recognition of the role of technology in young children's lives and the need for technology to be considered in relation to their developmental and learning needs. However, the statement's value in supporting and assisting educators in the selection of software appropriate for use in the early childhood educational sector is questionable given the somewhat global explanation it offers in defining developmentally appropriate software. Of potentially greater use to educators would be not only description of developmentally appropriate software, but a means of identifying those features of the software that were likely to be representative of a developmentally appropriate electronic and play-based program.

This need was addressed by Haugland (1997) who developed an assessment tool for the evaluation and selection of software in early childhood contexts. Haugland's assessment tool identified a range of features that software should contain to be considered developmentally appropriate. The scale developed by Haughland was based on ten criteria considered to be important components of developmental appropriateness. These criteria were linked to the theoretical principles of development that arguably informed the evolution of developmentally appropriate practice as a form of early childhood pedagogy, including those expressed in the claim that knowledge development is an active process. The criteria for developmentally appropriate software as defined by Haugland included reference to the idea of allowing the child to actively control and manipulate the program in order to support learning. Additional criteria included the need for the software to provide children with clear instructions and the need for technical features such as animation to be included in order to hold children's attention .

Similar features of developmentally appropriate software have likewise been identified by others who have accepted the value of computing experiences for young children from a developmental perspective. Clements and Nastasi (1993) in a comprehensive review of the literature and research relating to young children's computer and software use, also identified features common to those identified by Haughland, Henninger and Char in describing developmentally appropriate software:

According to Clement's et al. (1993) explanation, developmentally appropriate software can be readily identified by a series of technical features that allow children to actively manipulate the electronic environment. This manipulation is viewed as consistent with the theoretical principles of development informing the notion of developmentally appropriate practice as a form of early childhood pedagogy, which in turn influences the nature of the early childhood curriculum, or in this context, the selection of software. From a theoretical perspective the usefulness of this approach in identifying appropriate software for young children to use in educational setting is undeniable. However, from a practical point of view this method of identifying developmentally appropriate software may neglect to consider teachers' perceptions of developmentally appropriate practice. This may be considered the case where developmental appropriateness is defined in relation to the theoretical conceptions of development that ultimately inform the notion of developmentally appropriate practice as dominant pedagogical approach to early childhood education.

This situation is problematic as it neglects a consideration of educators' beliefs and practices when aiming to implement developmentally appropriate learning experiences for young children. As Mangione (1992) suggests there is often discrepancy between 'scholars' interpretations of DAP and educators' interpretations of the same pedagogy from a practical perspective . This is an issue further explored by Goffin (1994) who notes that the vitality of learning and growth as experienced by children and educators is often undermined by 'academic' perceptions of appropriate education. In this situation, argues Goffin, teachers can be regulated to the "role of technicians who implement the educational ideas of others" [Goffin, 1994, p. 212]. If as both Mangione and Goffin suggest, it is possible that early childhood educators hold different perceptions of DAP to those presented by the academic community, it may also be possible that educators' perception of what constitutes developmentally appropriate interactive multimedia may also differ.

This would suggest that when examining the concept of developmentally appropriate software that it may be useful to develop an understanding of how educators interpret DAP in relation to their general programming and planning, and how this in turn relates to the selection of software they provide for young children. In developing such an understanding we may be better placed to determine those features of interactive multimedia that teachers believe are congruent with DAP from a practical perspective. And, in doing so, perhaps increase the likelihood of selecting software that fits into the entire program, rather than simply identifying those features of software that are considered compatible with theoretical constructs of childhood development and learning.

Given this argument, the study established a series of research goals aimed at determining early childhood educators' perceptions of developmentally appropriate software. This study was conducted as part of a larger on-going research project with the data intended to inform the development of a questionnaire to be used to survey an additional group of educators. The ultimate aim of the research project is to develop a practical framework that can assist educators in the analysis and selection of developmentally appropriate software for use in the classroom. However, for the purpose of the study reported here, the research goals were to related to identifying the features of interactive multimedia software that early childhood educators perceive as consistent with developmentally appropriate practice from a cognitive-constructivist perspective. The research goals for the small qualitative study reported here were to:

• Examine early childhood educators' perceptions of the types of interactive multimedia that support and encourage children's development in relation DAP from a cognitive constructivist perspective, and;
• Develop an understanding of early childhood educators' perceptions of the structural features of interactive multimedia software that allow children to operate the software independently of adult guidance

To determine the features of interactive multimedia software that early childhood educators perceive as consistent with developmentally appropriate practice from a cognitive-constructivist perspective.

Four early childhood educators were invited to attend a group interview. In order to ensure that the initial exploration canvassed a range of early childhood experiences an educator from an early childhood special education setting was included. Of these four participants two were able to attend the interview at the scheduled time; one participant from the special education setting and one from a mainstream education setting. Both of the participants were characterised by the following:

• Experienced in using interactive multimedia software in an early childhood educational setting (at least 6 - 12 months)
• Currently working with children aged between 3.5 - 5 years and with at least two years experience in the early childhood sector
• Held a post-secondary qualification in early childhood education at the Bachelor of Education, or higher, level.

In line with Seidman's (1998) argument that the primary means of investigating an educational process or experience is by interviewing those people who carry out the actual process , this study employed the interview as the primary means of data collection in order to determine educators' perceptions of developmentally appropriate software. The standardised open-ended interview as described by Tuckman (1994) was selected as the most appropriate interview type. This interview involves developing an interview schedule prior to the actual interview being conducted ensuring that the exact wording and sequencing of the questions to be asked were determined in advance. Under this format all participants are asked the same questions in the same order and all questions are worded and presented in an open ended-format. In light of this, the standardised open-ended interview was viewed as offering the following methodological benefits in the context of this study:

• All participants answered the same questions, therefore increasing the comparability of responses
• Data were obtained for each person on those topics included in the interview
• The pre-developed interview schedule would allow the interview to be repeated if necessary
• The pre-developed interview schedule facilitated the organisation, presentation and analysis of data

The interview schedule was based on the interviewing procedure outlined by Vaughn, Schumm & Singub (1996) and was conducted in three phases, with the purpose of:

1. Establishing educators' existing conceptions of developmentally appropriate practice and interactive multimedia software as separate entities
2. Exploring educators' perceptions of the nature of developmentally appropriate interactive multimedia as a combined entity or concept
3. Summarising the educators' responses to the first two phases of the interview and providing the opportunity for participants to add comments or ask questions

Each phase of the interview consisted of a series of pre-developed interview questions that were categorised according to a particular topic that related to the purpose of the study. The questions related to each topic for the three phases of interview are presented in table 1.

The interview was tape-recorded and transcribed. Data from the transcription were then summarised using a contact summary form as described by in order to identify the main themes arising from the responses to the questions provided by the participants under each topic during the three phases of the interview.

The findings for the study are presented as a summary of the participant's responses. The summarised version of participant's responses are taken as representative of the main themes arising from each topic canvassed during the three phases of the interview in order to address the research goals.

The findings tend to suggest that the educators' perceptions of developmentally appropriate interactive multimedia software are linked to their understandings of how the concept of developmentally appropriate practice functions at the practical level when providing children with learning experiences. This perception of developmentally appropriate software means that the interviewed educators tended to nominate as developmentally appropriate those technical features of software that meet the individual needs of children and encouraged autonomy. These findings are discussed in greater detail in relation to the topics defined in the methodology section of the report.

The data arising from the study suggests that both of the interviewed educators were able to articulate detailed conceptions of interactive multimedia software and developmentally appropriate practice as separate entities during the establishing phase of the interview. These conceptions were brought to light when the participants were asked by the interviewer to explain what the terms meant to them as practitioners currently employed in the early childhood educational sector. The educators' responses to these prompts are explored in the following sections (for purposes of anonymity the interviewees have been provided with the names 'Joan' and 'Faith').

When asked by the interviewer what they took the term interactive multimedia to mean, both participants highlighted the manner in which the software enabled the children to actively 'engage' or 'interact' with the computer. This is an idea expressed by the second participant (Joan) as "well my understanding is that children are actually interacting with the software". This view is similar to that offered by the first participant (Faith) who defined interactive multimedia software in terms of its relationship to the children, suggesting that "I think the first word that comes to me is that we expect a response". The nature of the response-relationship between the software and the child identified by both Joan and Faith was later expanded upon by Faith, who offered as an explanation the idea that "we expect children to respond to the information from the computer so it's not them just sitting there watching … they actually become involved".

The definitions of interactive multimedia provided by the educators suggest a deeper understanding of the term than that presupposed by the interviewer who later defined interactive multimedia software for the purpose of the interview as "software that allows the children to actively control the software environment and that includes a combination of any one or two of the following, text, graphics, sound, video and/or animation".

The difference between the definition provided by the interviewer and the one suggested by the participants is characterised by the emphasis the educators placed on the relationship between the child and the technology. Here the concept of interaction is perceived by the educators to exist within the child-technology-response relationship, whereas the interviewer tended to define interaction in terms of active engagement enabled by the combination of text and graphics. This difference was further highlighted by Joan who later suggested that an important component of interactive multimedia lies in the fact that it establishes a cause-and-effect relationship between the child and the computer. This relationship was highly valued by Joan, a special education teacher, who felt that cause and effect nature of the interactive multimedia supported the development of key skills in children:

Faith later responded to the cause-and-effect relationship argued by Joan. Here Faith suggested that although involved in a mainstream setting, she likewise valued that component of the software that was perceived as supporting the development of key skills through the establishment of a cause and effect relationship between the children and the software. Faith aligned her response with Joan's saying that her thoughts regarding the software were "similar to the things that Joan said about the visual tracking, the matching and sorting, classifying, directions and doing things in a sequence of events".

The educators' conceptions of the term 'developmentally appropriate practice' indicated that they viewed the concept as existing on two levels. These levels were represented by theoretical and practical conceptions of DAP, and although criticised at the theoretical level DAP was interpreted as being operational at the practical level. This distinction between the 'levels' is characterised by Faith's response to the direction "what do you take this term to mean in an early childhood education setting", where she responded by criticising the concept of DAP as 'narrow' and constrained by the idea that children should experience activities for which they are deemed developmentally ready by developmental theory. This feeling was endorsed by Joan who also felt that "it can be a narrow concept". Despite this criticism, both Faith and Joan later described DAP at the practical level as providing a program that reflects the differences and similarities children bring to an early childhood educational setting, with Faith proposing that:

And Joan likewise arguing that on a practical level that DAP:

These responses tended to indicate that although both participants perceived DAP as a narrow concept from a theoretical perspective, that they interpreted it in a practical sense as the provision of programming and planning that meets the various developmental needs of the children in their classes.

The educators' rationale behind the decision to provide the children with a microcomputer and software tended to refer to their overall goals for the children's development and in this manner reflected their understanding of DAP at a practical level. Faith for example, explored this idea suggesting that developmentally, the software was a useful tool for young children since it encouraged them to remain focussed on a task and so enabled the development of key cognitive developmental skills such as problem solving:

Joan was likewise focussed on the potential the software offered to meet the cognitive developmental needs of her students, particularly from her perspective as a special education teacher. Joan highlighted the motivating aspects of the technology, in supporting development suggesting that "the medium's sensory stimulation is so much motivating and they tolerate that perhaps more in that situation whereas they might not in another". This comment mirrors Joan's earlier interpretation of DAP as reflecting the children's needs in the programming, or in this case in the provision of an appropriately stimulating and motivating learning experience.

Both educators tended to rationalise the inclusion of technology into their programs on the basis of the technology's ability to be adapted to the perceived developmental needs of the children. This was area identified by Joan, who felt that "the computer has been a bit of bonus in that sense as you can direct it for children quite specifically … [so] children of the same age [although not necessarily developmental levels] can still be using programs and software that meets their needs". Faith was likewise able to identify with this argument claiming that "we can use computers to lots of advantages, either our work with the children or the children's work within the program and we don't just see them as a time when they just play games on them … I see them as a very important tool in what we're doing".

Given these views regarding the developmental advantages of using the technology, it is not surprising that the educators were able to clearly articulate the features of interactive multimedia they believed supported the children's developmental needs. Joan was quite clear on this point indicating that developmentally appropriate software from her perspective would provide children with the "opportunity to take control, to make some sot of indication of what's happening and to get feedback [from the computer]". Faith identified similar features, although was careful to include the notion of active engagement in interpretation of developmentally appropriate software:

Developmental appropriateness is therefore characterised by both educators in terms of meeting the children's developmental needs. This idea is implicit within their concern that the software utilise non-text based messages regarding operation for pre-reading children. Interestingly, the technical features the teachers identified as important components of developmentally appropriate software are similar to those proposed by Haughland (1997), Char (1990), Clements et al (1993) and Henninger (1994).

This finding supports the notion of the relationship posited by the NAEYC in the advancement of their position statement regarding technology and the young child whereby appropriate uses of technology by young children is positioned in relation to principles of development. Given this relationship it may be fair to suggest that developmentally appropriate interactive multimedia is justifiably characterised by an actively engaging electronic environment that meets children's developmental needs and offers user control over the program by providing children with a range of options and appropriate feedback.

Towards the end of the interview participants were asked if they would like to make any additional comments or ask any further questions. It was during this period of the interview that a range of issues concerning computer use in early childhood education in general were raised by the participants independent of interviewer prompting. Of concern to the educators were issues related to the social-linguistic implications of computer use in the classroom, such as sharing and turn-taking. Other issues were concerned with limiting computer use and ensuring children participated in other classroom-based activities. Of additional concern to the educators was the need to establish appropriate rules for computer use and concern regarding the physical placement of the computer in the classroom. The raising of these concerns by the interviewees suggests that much more research into the area is necessary. In many ways the issues raised by the educators independently of prompting by the interviewer indicates that research into what constitutes developmentally appropriate software is perhaps in advance of more basic technology concerns, such as where the computer should be located within the early childhood classroom, or what rules should be developed to govern its use. Alternatively, the raising of these concerns may suggest that factors external to the actual software are important components of implementing interactive multimedia into the early childhood curriculum in a developmentally appropriate manner.

The increased use of computer technology, and the software accompanying this technology, in early childhood classrooms has necessitated an examination of the software in light of the pedagogical influences on the curriculum. As one such influence, the concept of developmentally appropriate practice can be extended to the provision of appropriate software for young children. Findings from this small qualitative study suggest that early childhood educators' perceptions of the features of interactive multimedia software that are consummate with the notion of developmentally appropriate practice are in line with those arising from research . As a pilot study forming part of a larger study, these findings will be utilised to survey a larger group of educators with the ultimate aim of developing a framework that can assist educators in the analysis and selection of developmentally appropriate software for use in the classroom.