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Recent theory and research on motivation has shifted in its focus from a study of more general characteristics of individuals such as personal motivational goals, to an examination of the motivation of individuals within specific domains or contexts. This change in focus has led to a broadening of the methodologies used to examine motivation. Many studies now use mixed methods. Rather than relying almost exclusively on quantitative measures such as questionnaires, researchers are incorporating qualitative measures to capture the dynamic and rich nature of learning and motivation in context.

This presentation will illustrate the above trend. The presenter's work in progress will be used to discuss how insights into motivation in context might be obtained using qualitative research methodologies. Participants from the domains of sport and music have been interviewed using a range of specially designed stimulus materials and tasks to gain an understanding of their experiences within these contexts. This approach elicited participants’ stories of their development and the people involved, as well as their perceptions of the different settings in which they play sport or music. Participants were asked to consider both positive and negative influences on motivation.

This paper describes work-in-progress towards a Doctoral degree in Education. The rationale behind the research questions and design is briefly presented. Tasks developed to examine the research questions are presented in detail. These reflect current conceptual and methodological aspects of research on motivation.

The construct of motivation is complex and multi-faceted. It is inextricably linked to all phases and facets of learning, and like self-regulation it has cognitive, affective and behavioural components that differ with different levels of expertise. Many theories of motivation, however, tend to focus on components of motivation rather than taking a holistic view.

Quantitative methods provide powerful, succinct, statistical portrayals, but this may oversimplify the complexities of real-world experiences, may miss major factors of importance that are not easily quantified, and may fail to portray the sense of the ‘whole’ situation (Patton, 1990). To address these concerns, this study adopts a qualitative approach which "gathers data on multiple aspects of the setting under study in order to assemble a comprehensive and complete picture of the social dynamic of the particular situation" (p. 50).

Some supporters of quantitative methodologies would say that qualitative research relies on "softer, interpretive methods" that are "unreliable, impressionistic, and not objective" (Denzin & Lincoln, 1994, p.5). Issues raised include the effect of the researcher on the supposedly ‘natural’ settings or on the individuals involved. There may also be concerns about a lack of systematic and rigorous testing of variables and theories (Hammersley & Atkinson, 1983) or about a lack of scientific rigour and the credibility and usefulness of resultant research findings (Patton, 1990). Others have expressed concerns about ‘soft’ science which uses a personal rather than objective approach, is open to bias, and is even seen as an "attack on reason and truth" (Denzin & Lincoln, 1994, p.4).

Table 2 summarises some major differences between quantitative and qualitative methods of inquiry. If viewed as a dichotomy, quantitative methods are seen to be deductive, verificative, enumerative and objective. Qualitative methods, in contrast, are seen to be inductive, generative, constructive and subjective (Goetz & LeCompte, 1984). These authors suggest, however, that it is more appropriate to view the two methods as being on a continuum with respect to these features. Rather than exclusive dichotomies, they say that extremes are rare and it is more likely that various combinations will apply. Similarly Denzin and Lincoln (1994, p.5) maintain that different research styles are simply "doing the same things differently". Specific methodologies are not exclusive to any particular paradigm, theory or discipline. This study, however, does incorporate many of the features of qualitative research listed in Table 2 (adapted from Goetz & LeCompte,1984; Denzin & Lincoln, 1994).

The main research question for this study is: "What is the nature of the relationship between an individual and a context in relation to motivation?" This broad area of inquiry is then broken down into three further questions:

• How do aspects of an individual’s personal history shape the motivation that they bring to a particular setting?
• How do aspects of contexts shape or impact on motivation?
• How is the motivation of individuals revealed in particular contexts?

Motivation is situated within contexts that differ in their levels of specificity. In this study the contexts of interest are the broad level of domain (music and sport), communities of practice (such as schools or teams), settings (such as practice or performance) and particular tasks or activities. Sport and music were selected as the domains of study because of perceived similarities between them. Both require lengthy periods of individual skill development – often beginning during early school years, both generally incorporate some individual and group activities, both demand demonstration of competence or expertise through a performance component, and experts in both fields are highly regarded in our society.

Thirty athletes and musicians were interviewed twice. Participants were all relative experts in their fields and numbers were equally divided between athletes and musicians, between males and females, and between younger and more experienced participants. These criteria were used to locate and select participants. Only those participating in teams or ensembles were selected.

The participants in this study then were individuals who are ‘motivated’ in the broad contexts (domains) of sport and music. Their motivational beliefs, feelings and actions were examined. In-depth interviews and specially designed tasks were used to construct their personal histories – the paths that have led them to their current situation. Their perceptions of the various contexts they have experienced were also explored to gain an understanding of how these contexts have shaped their motivation to continue in that domain.

All participants were interviewed on two occasions within a twelve month period. As part of those interviews, they were asked to complete various tasks as illustrated in Table 3.

The Time Line Task was designed to gain information about each participant’s developmental history in relation to his or her participation in sport or music. It also aimed at activating memories of key events and people from the past in preparation for the Circles of Influence Task. The contribution of previous experiences to later involvement in the domains of sport and music has been shown to be important (Sosniak, 1985a; 1985b). The Task followed a logical order and began with questions about getting started and concluded with questions about current involvement in the domain. The Time Line Task essentially used a visual representation of the relevant stages of development (see Figure 1) on an A4 sheet of paper in conjunction with the general question "Can you remember the different stages of your involvement with sport / music?" Details about participation in school and community activities, about teachers and coaches, about the involvement of family and friends, and about special programs or awards were elicited in order to gain a comprehensive picture of development in the relevant domain.

The Circles of Influence Task was used to determine who the influential people (both past and present) were for individuals in their development as athletes and musicians, and the nature of their influence. The task consisted of four parts (see Figure 2). Participants first were asked to write in the names of influential people in concentric circles on an A3 sheet of paper. They were then asked the nature of their relationship with all those named (eg friend, teacher, family member etc) and to give an example of how that person had influenced them. Participants were then shown a list of additional categories and asked if there was anyone else who came to mind from those categories who may have been influential. Finally participants were asked to think about anyone who might have had a negative influence – who made it more difficult for them to continue in sport or music. These names were not recorded on the circles.

The present study differed from some of the above in that it focused on the domains of sport and music rather than for example asking about life in general or about friendships. Another difference is that both unprompted recollections as well as specifically determined categories of responses were used in an effort to broaden the range of those who participants might consider to be in their networks of influence. A final, relatively unique, feature of the task as used in this study is that both positive and negative examples of influences were elicited.

Circles task.

1. The circles represent the degree of influence with those in the centre being the most influential. Write the names of people who you think should go in each of the circles – think about past and present influences.
2. For each person in the circles, what is your relationship with them and in what way was this person influential?
3. Can you think of a specific example of when they have influenced you?
4. Now look at the categories of different people. Are there any people from these categories you would include in your circles of influence? – repeat ii + iii.
5. We’ve been considering positive influences. Can you think of times when someone has, perhaps even unintentionally, made it more difficult for you to continue in music / sport? – repeat ii + iii.

The A Day in the Life Task (see Figure 3) served three purposes. It gave the researcher an indication of day to day current activities of participants and of their perceptions of those activities. The task also acted as a bridge between the two interviews. Participants were given the task on an A4 sheet of paper with an explanation at the end of Interview 1. Twenty-four of the thirty participants completed the activity.

The task allowed the participants to contribute to the research in that they were free to select any day they wished. They were asked to preferably choose a day that involved sport or music but some did not do this. Whatever day was selected, the researcher was able to ask whether it was a typical day or an unusual one and why. Questions and comments about the task were incorporated naturally into the second interview where they seemed to be most appropriate.

Imagine that a TV documentary is being made of your life. Select one day and briefly record the activities you undertake at different times, and make a note of any other people involved.

No activity is too mundane to include but some privacy is also allowed! Choose any day you wish but try and cover the whole day from beginning to end.

Space is also provided for comments such as whether this was a particularly enjoyable or boring activity, whether this is a very common or unusual activity etc. Use the back of the sheet if you need to.

When you have completed the task, please return it to me in the envelope provided. Thanks.

The aim of the Settings Chart Task was to obtain an understanding of the nature of both the settings in which participants practiced and performed, and of their perceptions of those settings. In the second interview participants were presented with an A3 chart representing the various settings in which they played sport or music (see Figure 4). They were asked to assist the researcher by explaining what should be in each section of the chart for each setting in which they participated. The researcher wrote brief comments in relevant sections to use as a visual prompt. On completion of the chart participants were asked various questions comparing each setting.

During Interview 1 various issues or difficulties faced by participants during their lives as athletes and musicians were raised. The Issues Sorting Task (see Figure 5) was developed to gauge to what extent those issues were common across participants and across domains. Discussion about the various issues was used as a means to identify motivational strategies known and / or used by participants.

Problem solving tasks have been widely used in research to tap into different types of expert knowledge (see for example Billet, 1996; Regnier et al, 1993). Self-regulated learners are able to systematically adapt strategies to changing personal and contextual conditions and are able to independently choose when and how to use particular strategies (Zimmerman, 1998). The questions used in the Issues Sorting Task were designed to elicit declarative, procedural, conditional and metacognitive knowledge about motivational strategies.

The Issues Sorting Task followed the Settings Chart Task in Interview 2 and used the same distinction between individual practice, group practice / rehearsal / training and group performance / competition. A further group of issues (‘Other’) was included that were applicable across settings. All participants were given the same set of paper slips with the issues written on them and were asked to sort them into the same categories by placing each slip on an A4 sheet of paper with the categories on it. Blank slips were available if other issues were raised, but no suggestions were made.

NB: these last issues were sorted as ‘encountered’ or ‘never encountered’ rather than into three categories, or they were simply discussed

NB: These questions varied depending on participants’ previous responses. In general issues said to occur most often were discussed. Some participants said no issues occurred frequently for them and so possible reasons for this were discussed.

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